Indima yobufakazi kokubili emacaleni omphakathi nawobugebengu ibalulekile esimisweni sobulungisa. Zonke izinyathelo zomthetho zixhomeke esayizini, inzuzo, kanye nasebuthembekeni bobufakazi obunikezwayo. Ukuqonda indlela obusetshenziswa ngayo ubufakazi, izinhlobo zabo ezihlukahlukene, kanye nokubaluleka kwabo kungasiza abantu ukuba basebenzise izinqubo ezingokomthetho ngokuphumelelayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bayingxenye yecala, ufakazi, umfundi womthetho, noma uchwepheshe wezimiso zobulungisa. Lesi sihloko sihlola imisebenzi ebucayi yobufakazi ekulingweni futhi sinikeze ukucaciswa okucacile kwezimiso ezilawulayo.

Izinhlobo Zobufakazi

Ubufakazi buvela ngezindlela eziningi, ngayinye ifeza injongo ehlukile ekutholeni amaqiniso ecala. Imithetho yobufakazi ivame ukuqaphela izigaba eziningi ezibanzi. Ukuqonda lezizigaba kubalulekile kokubili kubenzi bomthetho nakwabahlanganyeli esimisweni sobulungisa, njengoba ukuhluleka nobukhulu bohlobo ngalunye kungahluka kuye ngokwezimo.

Ubufakazi Obuwubufakazi

Ubufakazi obufakazelwe buhlanganisa izinkulumo ezenziwa ofakazi abafungelwe, enkantolo noma ngokufakazelwa. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukulandisa kofakazi bokuzibonela ngokuqondile, kanye nemibono enikezwa ofakazi abangochwepheshe. Ukuthembeka kofakazi, inkumbulo yabo, kanye nobandlululo lwabo konke kuyahlolisiswa lapho kuphenyiswa. Nakuba ubufakazi obunamandla buvame ukubekwa ngaphansi kwephutha lomuntu futhi bungathonywa yimibuzo eholayo noma izinqubo ezibonisa ukuthi bakhona ezisikiselayo.

Ubufakazi Obulotshiwe

Izincwadi ezibhalwe noma eziqoshiwe ezibhalwe enkantolo zibhalwe ngokusekelwe kubufakazi obubhaliwe. Lokhu kuhlanganisa izivumelwano, ama-imeyili, izincwadi, amarekhodi ezokwelapha, amarekhodi ebhizinisi, nezincwadi ezisemthethweni. Ubufakazi obubhaliwe buvame ukubhekwa njengobufakazi obunokwethenjelwa kakhulu kunobufakazi bomlomo ngoba budalwe ngokuseduze kakhulu kwezenzakalo ezishiwoyo futhi bungagudluzwa kakhulu. Nokho, izindaba zokuthi ziyiqiniso, amahlebe, nobufakazi obungcono kakhulu zingathinta ukubonakala kwazo.

Ubufakazi Obungokoqobo

Ubufakazi obungokoqobo, obaziwa njengobufakazi bangempela, bunezinto ezibonakalayo ezihambisana nalendaba. Izibonelo zihlanganisa izikhali, amasampula e-DNA, iminwe, izingubo, namathuluzi. Ubufakazi obuphathekayo buyenandiseka kakhulu ngoba buqinile futhi bungahlaziywa ngokuzimele ochwepheshe. Iketanga lokuwinwa kwezingane kumelwe ligcinwe ngokucophelela ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi ubufakazi abunazo noma bungcolile.

Ubufakazi Obubonisayo

Imishini esetshenziswa ekunikezeni ubufakazi obubonisayo iwubufakazi obukhanyisayo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa imidwebo, amabalazwe, izithombe, amavidiyo, izifanekiso, nezithombe zemifanekiso yezenzakalo zobugebengu noma zokuvuselela izingozi. Ubufakazi bokubonisa busiza abagcini bejaji nabahluleli ukuba babone izenzakalo noma imiqondo eyinkimbinkimbi. Nokho, kumelwe kube ukumelelwa okulungile nokunembile; kungenjalo, kungadukisa futhi kukhishwe.

Ubufakazi Bezinombolo

Ulwazi olugcinwe noma oludluliselwa ngezindlela zobuchwepheshe luvame kakhulu ekulingweni kwanamuhla. Ubufakazi bezezinombolo buhlanganisa i-metameter ye-imeyili, izigqebhezana ze-website, i-metam-mmeters, i-GPS, ukubiza izingosi zokwaziswa, imiyalezo yokwaziswa, izithombe zobuchwepheshe, kanye nokwaziswa okuvela emafwini. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha, kanjalo imithetho elawula iqoqo, ukugcinwa, nokuqinisekiswa kobufakazi bezezinombolo. iNhlangano yesizwe ye-Jaji [ inikeza iziqondiso zezindlela zobuchwepheshe zokwethembeka nobuqotho.

Ubufakazi obuhlukahlukene bufeza indima ehlukile ekutholeni amaqiniso nasekusekeleni izimpikiswano phakathi necala. Uma buhlangene, bakha ukulandisa okuvumelanayo kokuthi leli qiniso litholakele (hhayi uma liyijaji noma ijaji) lithatha isinyathelo ukuze lifinyelele isinqumo.

Ukubaluleka Kobufakazi Ekulingweni

Ubufakazi busebenza njengesisekelo sanoma iliphi icala, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi elesizwe noma elelebhu. Ngaphandle kobufakazi, icala alinalutho, okwenza kube nzima ukufinyelela umphumela olungile. Ubufakazi busetshenziswa:

  • [ Ifaka amaqiniso endaba. Impikiswano eyisisekelo kunoma iliphi icala ixhomeke kulokho okwenzeka ngempela. Ubufakazi bunikeza isisekelo esiyiqiniso lapho kwakhiwe khona izisho ezingokomthetho nezivikelo.
  • Icala noma ukuphikisa okushiwo yiqembu elihilelekile. Izinhlangothi zonke zinikeza ubufakazi bokuqinisa isikhundla salo nokululaza izinsolo zombani. Umthwalo wobufakazi uveza ukuthi ubani okufanele anikeze ubufakazi obanele bokunqoba.
  • I-Pursue umahluleli noma amajaji ngokuphathelene neqiniso lendaba. Umgomo oyinhloko wokunikeza ubufakazi ukuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo ethile ithembekile. Isisindo esinikezwa ubufakazi obubodwa sixhomeke ekuthembekeni, ekusebenziseni kwayo, nasemongweni.
  • Isho isisekelo sempikiswano engokomthetho nezinqumo. Abahluleli bathembela embhalweni ocacile wokubusa ngenkathi yokuhamba, ukuyala, nokungena ekwahluleleni. Izikhalo zivame ukuphenduka ukuthi inkantolo equlwayo iyabuvuma noma ayibutholi ubufakazi.

Ubufakazi Ekulingweni Kwangaphakathi

Ukuqulwa kwecala kuhlanganisa izingxabano phakathi kwabantu, amabhizinisi, noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezivamile zihlanganisa ukukhokhwa kwabantu ngabanye, ukuphulwa kwezivumelwano zesivumelwano, ukuxabana ngendawo, nokucwaswa kwemisebenzi. Indima yobufakazi kulokhu kuqulwa kwecala ilodwa ilolongwa ngomthwalo ophansi wobufakazi kanye nenjongo yokuqhubeka, ngokuvamile okukhokhelwa noma ukwenza okuthile kunokujeziswa ngobugebengu.

Umthwalo Wobufakazi Emacaleni Asemphakathini

Ezimweni zomphakathi, ummangalelwa kumelwe afakazele icala lakhe nge- ukucabangela ubufakazi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ubufakazi kumelwe bubonise ukuthi kungenzeka kakhulu (ngaphezu kuka-50% yamathuba) ukuthi ummangalelwa unecala. Lendinganiso iphansi kakhulu kunendinganiso yobugebengu futhi ibonisa iqiniso lokuthi izenzakalo zomphakathi zihilela amalungelo ayimfihlo kunenkululeko. Ezinye izindaba zomphakathi, njengokukhwabanisa noma isijeziso, kungadinga indinga indinganiso ephakeme: [ futhi ifaka ubufakazi obukholisayo .

Izinhlobo Ezivamile Zobufakazi Ekulingweni Kwangaphakathi

Kokubili ubufakazi obugciniwe buvame ukusetshenziswa ekuhlolweni kwe-comment. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho kuphulwa icala lesivumelwano, isivumelwano esilotshiwe ngokwaso siwubufakazi obuyikhombane, kuyilapho ubufakazi obuvela eqenjini ngezinhloso zabo bungase bube ubufakazi. Ofakazi abaqaphile ngokuvamile basetshenziswa ukunikeza imibono engxabanweni eyinkimbinkimbi enjengokungasebenzi kahle kwezokwelapha, ukuhluleka kobunjiniyela, noma ukulimala kwezimali. Ubufakazi obungokomzimba, njengemikhiqizo ekhubazekile noma izithombe zengozi, bufeza indima ebalulekile. Inqubo yokutholwa kwe-paligionstion //partums, acursties, nezicelo zokukhiqizelwa kwemishini [1]

Ukuziphakamisa Nokubonakala

Ubufakazi bungavumelana nalokho okushiwo icala. Ngaphansi kwe-Federal Rules of Evidence, ubufakazi obufanele buwukuthi “noma ikuphi ukuthambekela kokwenza iqiniso noma okungalindelekile kakhulu kunalokho okungaba khona ngaphandle kobufakazi” futhi iqiniso liwumphumela ekunqumeni isenzo. Ngisho nobufakazi obuphathekayo bungakhishwa uma inzuzo yalo yokuzimelela ikhudlwana ikhudlulwa kakhulu yingozi yokubandlululwa okungalungile, ukudideka ngezimpikiswano, noma ukuchithwa kwesikhathi. Ezivinyweni zombango zombango, abahluleli bavame ukungabufaki ubufakazi bobuntu beqembu noma izenzo ezimbi ngaphandle kokuba zifanele ukuwazisa ngokuqondile noma ukulimala.

Ubufakazi Ekulingweni Kwezigebengu

Ukuqulwa kwecala kuhilela uhulumeni − ngomshushisi .Izigxobo ziphakeme: ukukholeka kungaphumela ekuboshweni, ekuhlawulweni, ekulingisweni, noma ngisho nasekujezisweni ukufa. Ngenxa yalokho, indima yobufakazi ekuqulweni kwecala iqine kakhulu, nokuthweswa umshushisi umthwalo omkhulu kakhulu wobufakazi esimisweni somthetho waseMelika.

Umthwalo Wobufakazi Emacaleni Ezelelesi

Umshushisi kumelwe afakazele icala lommangalelwa ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Lolu phawu ludinga ukuba ubufakazi bukholise kakhulu ukuthi umuntu onengqondo angangabazi ukuthembela kulo ukuze enze isinqumo ezindabeni ezibaluleke kakhulu zomuntu siqu. Umthwalo awushintshi kummangalelwa; ummangalelwa ubhekwa njengongenacala futhi adinge anikeze ubufakazi. Nokho, ummangalelwa angakhetha ukunikeza ubufakazi obunengqondo ukuze anikeze ukungabaza noma aqinisekise ukuthi ukuzivikela okuqinile okunjengokwethuka.

Izinhlobo Zobufakazi Ezivame Ukuba Imbangela Ekulingweni Kwezigebengu

Ubufakazi obungokomzimba − obunjenge-DNA, ukuhlolwa kweminwe, kanye neminwe, ngokuvamile kusemqoka ekuhlolweni kwezegebengu ngenxa yokuthi kunenjongo futhi kungahlobanisa usolo lwezimo zobugebengu. Ubufakazi bofakazi bokuzibonela, nakuba bunamandla, abunakwethenjelwa futhi bungahlolisi. Ofakazi abafana nososayensi abanobuhlakani, izazi zezifundo, noma ochwepheshe beminwe, bavame ukubizwa ukuze bachaze ubufakazi obuyinkimbinkimbi besayensi. Ubufakazi be-teji, kuhlanganise nemininingwane yezindawo zocingo nezindawo zomphakathi, kuye kwaba yimfuneko kakhulu ekumangalelweni kwezempathi zezempathi zezempathiyo zanamuhla. Izinkulumo zomcakazana, uma zitholakala ngokusemthethweni, zingasetshenziswa njengobufakazi.

Ukungavumelani Nomthetho - sisekelo

Ubufakazi ekuqulweni kwecala akumelwe nje buhlangabezane nemithetho ebanzi yobufakazi kodwa futhi buvumelana nezimfuneko zomthetho-sisekelo. ISichibiyelo sesine sidinga ukuba ubufakazi obubonakalayo butholakale bungatholakali kubufakazi obusemthethweni bokufuna noma bushiye imfuneko eqashelweyo. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sivikela ekuphoqelweni kokuzifaka umlomo, okusho ukuthi ukuvuma izono kumelwe kube kokuzithandela futhi kutholakale ngemva kwesixwayiso somthetho-Miranda. ISichibiyelo seSine siqinisekisa ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, esibeka imingcele eqinile ebufakazini bezindlebeni. Uma ubufakazi butholakelelwe ngokuphula le mingcele, bungavinjelwa ukuze kuqedwe, futhi inkantolo ngeke ithathwe ecaleni.

Imithetho Elawulayo

Kokubili ukuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi nobugebengu kulawulwa yimithetho ebanzi yobufakazi. Ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, Imithetho e-Federal of Ubufakazi iyasebenza; imibuso eminingi iye yamukela imithetho yayo siqu ehambisana eduze nemithetho kahulumeni. Lemithetho iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuqulwa kulungile, kuthembekile, futhi kusebenza ngokuhlela ukuthi iziphi izimpawu ezinganikezwa, kanjani, nokuthi zingaphi izimpikiswano ezingase zenziwe.

Phinda uvale

Njengoba kuphawuliwe ngaphambili, bonke ubufakazi kumelwe bufanele icala. I-relevace iyimfuneko eyisisekelo; ngaphandle kwayo, ubufakazi abunakwenzeka. Nokho, ukusebenza kodwa akwanele ngaso sonke isikhathi; inkantolo ingakhipha ubufakazi uma ukubaluleka kwayo kuqhathaniswa nokwenzeka kobandlululo, ukudideka, noma ukulibala. Ngokwesibonelo, izithombe ezibonisa ubugebengu zingaba yimfuneko kodwa zingaba nobandlululo olungafanele ecaleni lobugebengu.

Ukubusa Kwezwi

Umthetho wenzwabethi ungenye yezimfundiso eziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu nezibaluleke kakhulu. Izwi elizwakalayo liyinkulumo engaphandle enikezwayo ukuze kufakazelwe iqiniso lendaba. Ngokuvamile, amazwakude awakholeki ngoba abashicileli babengafungeleki futhi bengabhekani nencazelo ye-headerrption ye-header ye-Cornell Information ye-algnact ye-heacter. Nokho, kunemibono eminingi ekhona esuselwayo ekhona manje ethathweyo nasemazwini ashukumisayo eqoshweni ezincwadini nasemazwini efuna ukuxilonga.

Isiqiniseko sehlulekile

Ngaphambi kokuba ubufakazi obungokoqobo noma obuyizinhlelo buvunywe, umsekeli kumelwe abonise ukuthi lento ifana nalokho ekushoyo. Lemfuneko, eyaziwa ngokuthi ukuqinisekisa, ngokuvamile ihlanganisa ubufakazi obuvela kufakazi oqaphela lento noma ongalandelela uchungechunge lwayo lokugcina ijele. Ubufakazi be-minucryption, ukuqinisekiswa kungadinga ukuhlaziywa kwemetameta noma ukuqinisekiswa kwe-operacture.

Amalungelo

Ezinye izixhumana zivikelwa ekwambulweni amalungelo asobala. Okuvame kakhulu ilungelo elivelayo lommeli, ilungelo elikhethekile, ilungelo lokunakekela udokotela, kanye nelungelo elinikezwa abefundisi. Lamalungelo akhuthaza ukuxhumana okuqotho ebuhlotsheni obubalulekile ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi ukuxhumana okuyimfihlo akusetshenziswa njengobufakazi enkantolo. Ilungelo lingase lisetshenziswe uma ukukhulumisana kwembulwe ngokuzithandela.

Indima YoFakazi Abayizigebengu

Ofakazi abaqaphile banikeza ulwazi olukhethekile nemibono esiza inkantolo ekuqondeni izindaba eziyinkimbinkimbi ngaphandle kwendaba yabantu abavamile.

Ukufanelekela Ukuba Ingcweti

Ngaphansi Umthetho wezezindlela uthembekile futhi ufakazi ungafaneleka njengochwepheshe ngolwazi, ikhono, okuhlangenwe nakho, ukuqeqeshwa, noma imfundo. Inkantolo isebenza njengomgcinisango, inquma ukuthi inqubo yochwepheshe ithembekile yini futhi ukuthi ubufakazi bayo buzosiza yini umthathi-maqiniso. Indinganiso, manje ehlangene nomthetho 702] idinga ukuba izinkantolo zihlole ukufaneleka kwesayensi yobufakazi ngaphambi kokuba zivume.

Imisebenzi YoFakazi Abayingcweti

  • Iprojective Explorence:[ Ochwepheshe banikeza ukuqonda okusiza inkantolo ukuba iqonde izihloko zobuchwepheshe noma ezikhethekile, njengokuqashwa kwe-casus yezokwelapha, izimiso zobunjiniyela, noma inani lemali.
  • Ubufakazi be-Treacharical Evinical: Bachaza ukuhlaziywa okuyinkimbinkimbi [1] njengokuhlelwa kwe-DNA, ukwakhiwa kabusha kwengozi, noma ukulimala kwezomnotho (ngomqondo ongaqondwa amajaji namajaji.)
  • Impicabadala Izinqumo ze Jury:[ Ubufakazi obucacile bungathonya kakhulu indlela abahluleli ababubona ngayo ubufakazi. Uchwepheshe ohloniphekile nokwaziyo ukuchaza angasekela icala lomphikisi, kuyilapho uchwepheshe ogxekwayo engalimaza.

Kukho kokubili ukuqulwa kwecala lomphakathi nelobugebengu, ukuthembeka kofakazi abangochwepheshe kubaluleke kakhulu. Ukuhlola isiphambano ngokuvamile kugxila ezimfanelweni zochwepheshe, ekuklameni izindlela, ekukhetheni okungase kube khona, nesisekelo esiyiqiniso sombono wabo. Inkantolo ingamisa futhi uchwepheshe wayo ongathathi hlangothi ngaphansi koMthetho 706 emacaleni ayinkimbinkimbi ukuze isize lowo othole iqiniso.

Eminye Imibono Eyinhloko Emthetho Wobufakazi

Ngaphandle kwezigaba eziyinhloko, eminye imiqondo eminingana ithonya indlela ubufakazi obusingathwa ngayo enkantolo.

Ukutholakala Nobufakazi

Ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala, abahilelekile bahlanganyela ekutholeni ukuze bafunde ngobufakazi obuzosetshenziswa olunye uhlangothi. Ezindabeni zomphakathi, i-Federal Miles of Civil Procedire idinga ukuvunjulwa kobufakazi okubokuqala okuphoqelelweyo. Ezicaleni zobugebengu, umshushisi unomthwalo womthetho-sisekelo ngaphansi Brady v. Maryland [ukudalula ubufakazi bokuvikela.] uvule zonke izinhlangothi ukuze zikwazi ukuhlola amandla aleli cala futhi ziholele ezindaweni zokuhlala noma ukucela. Ukuze unyuko olungaphezulu ekutholeni, bona [[FLT:][FLT][FLD][FLD][FOLD][F:3][5][5][7]][5]][14]]

Ubukanela Bokuwinwa Kwabantwana

Ubufakazi obungokoqobo nobungokwezinombolo, ukulondoloza uchungechunge oluqinile lwelungelo lokuhlala nabantwana kubalulekile. Umbhalo kumelwe ubonise ukuthi obani abaqoqa ubufakazi, lapho, lapho, futhi bonke abantu ababebugcina bebunikeza enkantolo. Ukunqamuka kwesimiso sokugcinwa kwabantwana kungaholela ezimpikiswaneni zokuthi ubufakazi buye bahlanekezelwa noma bahlehliswa, okungase kuphumele ekubukhipheni.

Izisulu Ezisobala

Phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala, abameli bangaphika imibuzo noma imibukiso ephula imithetho yobufakazi. Ukuphikisa okuvamile kuhlanganisa “ophucukile,”“ othi,” “ongenasisekelo,” “oyayaleza,” futhi“ oweqayo. Umahluleli ulawula ukuphikisa ngakunye, noma ukusekela (ukwamukela) ubufakazi. Ukulondoloza okufanelekile kokuphikiswa kuyagxeka.

Isiphetho

Indima yobufakazi ekuqulweni kwecala lomphakathi nobugebengu ibalulekile ekufinyeleleni ubulungisa. Ubufakazi bunikeza isisekelo esiyiqiniso esivumela amajaji namajaji ukuba enze izinqumo ezinolwazi, ezilungile. Ukuqonda izinhlobo zobufakazi, imithwalo yobufakazi, imithetho elawula ukungafiki, futhi umsebenzi wofakazi abangochwepheshe unganika amandla abantu abahilelekile ekuqulweni kwamacala angokomthetho. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ungumfundi, uthisha, uchwepheshe ongokomthetho, noma uthatha iqhaza esimisweni sobulungisa, uqonda lemiqondo ibalulekile ekulungiseni ubunzima bemizanyo. Njengoba indawo engokomthetho iqhubeka ivuleka, ikakhulukazi ngokukhula kobufakazi besayensi yobuchwepheshe bezesayensi yezesayensi, uhlala unolwazi ngobufakazi obunolwazi ngomthetho uhlala uyitshe lenqubo esebenzayo nengokomthetho.