Imfundiso Yokuhlanekezelwa: UkuVukela Kwekhulu Lama - 20 Leminyaka Kwe - American Federalism

I-Incorporation Doctrine ingenye yentuthuko eguqula kakhulu eMthethweni waseMelika, ivuselela ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni kahulumeni wezwe nezifundazwe. Ekujuleni kwayo, imfundiso inquma ukuthi yimaphi amalungiselelo eSimiso samalungelo ombuso kuphela ahloselwe ukunqanda uhulumeni wezwe lonke ."Isebenza futhi kuhulumeni bendawo phakathi kweSichibiyelo se-145. Kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqhubeka "yafaka" isivikelo esikhulu, yandisa ngokuphawulekayo inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi yandisa ukulingana kwesimiso sombuso sombuso. Le mfundiso, ikude kakhulu ekubeni isenzakalo esisodwa, isenzeka, iye yaba inqubo yokuncintisana, eqhutshwa yizehlakalo, imicimbi yomthetho eshintshayo, ifilosofi ehlanganisayo, imicimbi yokwahlulela nezombangazwe nezombangazwe.

Umsuka: Kusukela EBarron Kuya Esichibiyelweni Seshumi Nane

Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Doctrine ayizange ivele ekungabini nalutho. Izimpande zayo zikhona ngemva kweMpi Yombango kanye nokusetshenziswa kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane ngo-1868. Ngaphambi kwalokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayiphethe ngokuthi i-Barron v. Baltimore [1833] [i-1933] yamisa ngokuqinile ukuthi iBhilig of Rights isebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni womphakathi kuphela, hhayi emibuso. IJaji elinguJohn Marshall lathi le mithetho yayihloselwe ukunqandwa kwamandla esizwe ayesanda kudalwa, hhayi emabusweni ezwe angaphambili. Lokhu kwakusho ukuthi isimo, ngokwesibonelo, ukumisa noma ukuthatha impahla ngaphandle kwenkondla yayo, isikhathi eside, njengoba nje ivumela umthetho wayo.

IsiHluzi seshumi nane sashintsha umthetho-sisekelo. I-Foodomations noma ama-inmmunities Claus, i-Act Procession Claus, ne-Auncime Protection Claus yaklanyelwa ukuvikela izigqila ezisanda kukhululwa ekucindezelweni umbuso. Nokho, Slaaster Casess-Nd [[[FLLLL:1]] [1873], iNkanto ePhakathi Ephakeme yeNkantolo yawasusa ngokuphumelelayo amalungelo noma i-Immunicle Claus, iphethe ukuthi ivikele iqoqo elincane kuphela lamalungelo esizwe (njengelungelo lokunxusa kwesicelo seSishaya Indlu). Lesi sinqumo savala umnyango endleleni eqondile yokusebenzisa amalungelo kuleyo mithetho. Kunalokho, iNkadededededa i-'eqedroup Clation, noma i-'umuntu, ngaphandle kwenqubo yenkululeko, yenkululeko."

Imashumi eminyaka, iNkantolo yanqaba umqondo wokuthi i-Gast Process Claus ingasetshenziswa ukuhlanganisa iziqinisekiso ezithile ze-Bill of Rights. Hurtado v. California [1884], yenqaba ukufuna amazwe athatha izigwebo ezinkulu zokwahlulela, isivikelo esitholakala eSigqini sesihlanu sokuVuselela. Umbono owandile wawungukuthi "inqubo engaphambili" yayiwumqondo ovumelanayo obhekisele ezimisweni eziyisisekelo zobulungisa, hhayi emalungiselelweni akhethekile ezinto zokuqala eziyisishiyagalombili ezi-amendmentmentmentments. Lokhu kunxeba nenkululeko enkulu yokuchaza izinqubo zabo zobugebengu nenkululeko yomphakathi.

Umqondo ongenekayo

Inkathi yoshintsho yafika ekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili, njengoba iNkantolo yaqala ukuqaphela ukuthi amanye amalungelo ayebaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba ayewu "ekuqondweni wenkululeko egunyaziwe" futhi ngakho - ke kumelwe avikelwe ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni. Lenkolelo - mbono, eyaziwa ngokuthi ikhetha ukuhlanganiswa [, kancane kancane yathola imvume. Impumelelo yokuqala enkulu yayiyi v. [i-Gitlow v]. [i-New York[FLT] [[FLT] [25], lapho iNkanto ehlolwayo, ngaphandle kokunquma ngokugcwele, ukuthi inkululeko yokukhuluma yeSichithi sokuQala yasebenza kumthetho we-Clausle. Nakuba iNkantolo yasekela ukuqiniseka kwe-Geneazeleleka ngokomthetho we-New York, ukuvulela umnyango wesikhathi esizayo.

UMarch Ohamba Kancane: Izenzakalo Eziyinhloko Zekhulu Lama - 20

Kusukela ngawo-1920 kuya kuma-1960, iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlanganyela enqubeni yokuhlanganisa i-cell kanye kanye ngesikhathi, icala. Lendlela, eyasekelwa uMahluleli uBenjamin Cardozo futhi kamuva ilwelwe uMahluleli uHugo Black (AyiBlack ethandwayo ukuhlanganiswa kwengqikithi ngamaZwe akhethekile noma amaImmunies Clause), yaveza umthetho ocebile owawenezela isivikelo sikahulumeni ezindaweni ezithile.

Inkululeko Yesichibiyelo Sokuqala

Ngemva GEWWW, iNkantolo yashesha ukuhlanganisa ezinye iziMithetho Zokuqala. Nearbor v.Minnesota [1931]) yasebenzisa i-Free Plasce Clause ukwenza umthetho wezwe owawuvimbele iphephandaba ekunyatheliseni. [[FLT:] Cantwell v.[[FLT][FLT][FL:][FLT] [[FLT]] [D] [1940]) wahlanganisa ukuqamba isibopho i-Free Exectiveree, ukunxusa okungokwenkolo. [[FL:6] V]. ibhodi yemfundo yezemfundo [FLT] [FLT] [FL:] [47] ekumisweni kuka Claus, ephethe ukuthi "iyazisisa lemithetho ephakathi kwezenkolo]

Izikhungo Zesigebengu

IWarren Court (1953-1969) yaqondisa ukwanda okuphawuleka kakhulu kokuhlanganisa, ikakhulukazi enqubweni yobugebengu. Ngaphambi kwalenkathi, izifundazwe zazikhululeke kakhulu ukubeka imithetho yazo siqu yokuphenya, ukuphenya, nokuqulwa kwemibuzo. Lokho kwashintsha ngochungechunge lwezinqumo ezivelele:

  • Mapp v.Oo (1961): INkantolo yahlanganisa iSichibiyelo seSine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeli nokuquleka futhi, ngokubaluleke kakhulu, yasebenzisa umthetho wokuhlukanisa enkantolo enkantolo. Ubufakazi obuthola ngokungemthetho amaphoyisa angeke aphinde asebenzise ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu, ukunqanda okukhulu kwemithetho yomthetho.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): [ Lesisinqumo savumelana sahlanganisa iSichibiyelo seSithandathu nelungelo lokunikeza iseluleko, sifuna ukuba kunikezwe izimemezelo kubamangalelwa abangakwazi ukukhokhela omunye ezimweni zengozi. Isinqumo esashintshwa saguqula izimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela futhi saqinisekisa ukuthi ukuqunga kwecala okulungile kudinga ukumelelwa okusemthethweni okunenzuzo.
  • Mira v. Arizona (1966): Nakuba kungekona ukufakwa kwecala ngokulandelana okungaphelele (isebenzisa izindinganiso zikahulumeni kumthetho kahulumeni nombuso wokugcinwa ngaphansi kweSigqizo sesihlanu neseSithandathu), [[FLT:] Mirada yasungula izixwayiso manje-fuliar ngokumelene nokuzibeka ngokwayo, okumelwe zonke izisho zilandele.
  • [FLT][FUNT:1] v. Louisiana (1968): ISichibiyelo sesithupha safaka ilungelo lokuqulwa kwejaji emacaleni angathi sína, ifuna ukuba amazwe anikeze amajaji abantu abayisithupha ekulingweni okunjalo.

Ezinye iziphakamiso phakathi nalenkathi zahlanganisa iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokulunga ngokumelene nokuzixubanisa (] [[FLT]]] . Hogan, 1964]; ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi ([]] Pointerv. Texas], 1965; okungakwesokudla ekuzameni okusheshayo ([[[FLT:]]]][FLT]]]Klofer v. North Carolina[[FLT], 1967]; ilungelo lokubophezela ukuthola ofakazi (]]]], [indlela engcono kakhulu], [indlela] i-Texas[FLT], 1967], nesivikelo ngokuphindiwe kabili (FLT]]],[5]],[5]6]) inqubo yemithetho ecishe i-Empethonsi yemithetho yemithetho, yagunya yemithetho, eyagunyazezeze i-B (ibhulonyukethe,

ISichibiyelo Sesibili Nangemva Kwaso

Ijubane lokuhlanganisa isigaba sekhulu lokuqala ngemva kwawo-1970, kodwa alizange liphele ngokuphelele. Igebe elilodwa eliphawulekayo lasala: iSichibiyelo Sesibili sokulunga sokugcina nokuphatha izikhali. Emashumini eminyaka, izinkantolo eziphansi zacabanga ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesibili asisebenzi ezizweni, sithembele endabeni yokuqala yama-amashumi amabili, United States v. Cruickshank[[FLT][11][FLT] [18]] [18] [18], eyayiphethe ukuthi ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali lalingelona ilungelo lesizwe. Lokhu kwashintshwa [[FLT] [i-Donald.[inani elingu-Dintshiwe] [inani elivamile] [inani elivamile] ku-An.[5] Elesibili lisho iSibonelo sichaza ngokugcwele i-Calcioct.[5] ku-An, futhi ku-Empeyst Count.[4] ku-emperyststststst, i-moult.[4] ku-mos

Ngokufanayo, ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesibhozo se-Soundation Readting Fine Claus yafika kuTimbs v. Indiana (2029), lapho iNkantolo ivumelana ngokunquma ukuthi uhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo abanakukwazi ukuphoqelela imali eshisiwe, njengokulahlekelwa uhulumeni ngokungenakuqhathaniswa nobugebengu. Lendaba yaqinisekisa futhi ukuthi ngisho namalungiselelo asebenza kulezi zikhundla ayaqhubeka echazwa.

Amalungiselelo Angenazo Izakhi: Ambalwa Ahlukile

Naphezu kokuncitshiswa okukhulu kwemithetho engokomthetho, iSivumelwano seSiphendulo sesithathu asikafakwa. ISiphakamiso sesithathu sokunqabela amasosha emakhaya abantu asibodwa asizange sisetshenziswe, cishe ngenxa yokuthi asizange sichazwe ngokwethukela. Isidingo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokumangalela amajaji amakhulu (] iHurtado v. California, 1884]) asizange sisetshenziswe ezifundazweni; izigaba eziningi zisebenzisa ukuqulwa kokuqala kunezehlulelo oluhle. ISiphakamiso sesikhombisa sokumangalelwa kwecala enkantolo eqele kakhulu ([[FLT]] futhi asikahliswanga, izincazelo zingamisa imithetho yazo siqu yokuvinjelwa kwezakhamuzi. Futhi i-Extenberg Reformation ayizange isetshenziswe ngokusemthethweni enkantolo yeNkakhulu, nakuba i-Adruption ingekho ezinkantolo ezingokomthetho zeNkamelwe.

Lezi zingxenye zigcizelela uhlobo olukhethayo lokufakwa. INkantolo ayizange yamukele incazelo "ephelele" elwelwe uMahluleli Black, eyosebenzisa wonke amalungiselelo e-Bill of Rights Councils. Kunalokho, iye yancike ekuhlaziyweni kwe-Thest Procession Clause kanye necala ngecala ukuthi ilungelo libalulekile yini ekutholeni inkululeko nasebulungiseni.

Impikiswano ye-Oretical: I-vs yokukhetha. Ukuhleleka okuphelele

Imfundiso ye-Incorporation Doctrine ibilokhu iwumkhakha wempi yezimfundiso ezincintisanayo zencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. Abasekeli be abakhetha ukuhlanganiswa , okuye kwaba indlela evelele yeNkantolo, baphikisa ngokuthi ivumela ukuvumelana, ukuhlonipha uhulumeni ukuhlukana kuyilapho ivikela inkululeko eyisisekelo. Nokho, baveza ukuthi ukuhlanganisa okukhethayo kuye kwasetshenziswa ngokuguquguqukayo, ngezinye izikhathi kwandisa amalungelo futhi ngezinye izikhathi ukwenqaba ukwenza kanjalo ngokusekelwe emibonweni yamajaji ngalokho "fundali."

Ukuhlanganisa iTotal, njengoba kukhuthazwa uMahluleli Black, kungabopha izifundazwe ezindinganisweni ezifanayo zelungelo njengohulumeni kahulumeni, kususe ukungaqondakali. Abamnyama baphikisa ngokuthi amalungelo noma amaImmunione ekuqaleni ayehloselwe ukufezekisa lokhu, futhi indlela engakhethi yeNkantolo yadala isigaba samalungelo angafanele. Nakuba ingqikithi ingakaze iqondise iningi, iyaqhubeka njengesikhundla esinethonyayo, ivusenyuswe uMahluleli uClarence Thomas, oye waphikisa ngokuthi amalungelo noma i-Immunic Claus iyimoto efanele yokuhlanganisa.

Indlela yesithathu, eguquguqukayo, ngezinye izikhathi isetshenziselwa ukuchaza amacala lapho iNkantolo isebenzisa khona iSiphetho samaLungelo kuhulumeni wezwe ngokufaka imvume ekusebenzeni kwesizwe noma eSimisweni se-14. I-Grandment i-sivikelo esilinganayo se-F5 Reformation’s Produmement Claus (Bolling v. Sharpe]] imfundiso yokuhlenga ekusebenziseni inqubo kahulumeni, iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni uboshelwe ngezimiso ezifanayo nalezo zezentengiselwano ze-Gradition ezithiwe-1459.

Umphumela Wenkululeko YaseMelika Engombango

Umphumela ongokoqobo wokufakwa kweqembu uye waba mkhulu. Ngaphambi kokuba lifakwe, izifundazwe zingathi j, futhi eziningi zenze − futhi zenza: ukumiswa kwemikhuba engavumelani nemithetho manje: ukusungulwa kwamasonto angokomthetho, ukuphenya ngaphandle kwemvume, ukuzama abamangalelwa ngaphandle kweseluleko, nokujezisa okunonya. Ukubekwa kwesisekelo senkululeko yomphakathi ngokomthetho, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi kungakhathaliseki ukuthi umuntu uhlalaphi, bajabulela isivikelo esifanayo esiyisisekelo kuhulumeni okhohlwiwe.

Lokhu kubekwa kwesizwe akubanga yimpikiswano. Abagxeki belungelo lezombangazwe baye baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganisa amandla ayinhloko ejaji likahulumeni, kululaza ubukhosi bombuso nokwenza isinqumo sentando yeningi. Ngokwesibonelo, uMahluleli uJohn Marshall Harlan II, waphikiswa eMbusweni we-Warren Court, waxwayisa ngokuthi iNkantolo yayiguqula iBill of Rights ibe "umbhalo wenqubo yobugebengu" yezwe. Ngakwesobunxele, ezinye izazi ziphikisa ukuthi ukuhlanganisa i-divile akukahle kakhulu, kushiya izindawo ezinjengezintshontshiso zesijeziso, imvume yesizwe, nenkululeko yezomnotho yokulawula.

Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi umuntu unombono onjani, i - Incorporation Doctrine iyisisekelo somthetho-mthetho wanamuhla waseMelika. Ishintshe iBhill of Rights isuka kumthetho-sisekelo wemingcele kuhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe yaba yisivikelo esikhulu kumuntu ngamunye kuwo wonke amazinga kahulumeni. Lokhu kuziphendukela kwemvelo kubonisa ushintsho olujulile ekuqondeni: ukuthi inkululeko eqinisekiswe nguMthetho-sisekelo ayinakuxhomeke ekwahlulekeni kwemingcele yombuso.

Intuthuko Yekhulu Lama - 21 Neziyalezo Zesikhathi Esizayo

Iningi leNkantolo Ephakeme elisadla ngoludala eminyakeni yamuva liye laqhubeka lisebenzisa ukuhlanganisa, nakuba ngokuvamile ngezindlela ezingalindelekile. McDonald v.Chicago (2010) [2010]) [iSiphendu sesibili seSiphendu ngokwaso]. Timbs v. Indiana [2029], iNkanto yeNkantolo yasebenzisa uVumelwane wayo ukuze iphinde iphinde iphinde ibone ukuthi i-Promplatedrective isekelwe ngokwayo. [[FLT] isisekelo se-INkathiyo-Implate] [ice] isisekelo esingase-Relitapeagiod .[Ft] [ian ] [ithrective] [ian ] [ia] prose projectivesss] projectives prose prosethiant] profile

Omunye umbuzo ovulekile uwukuthi iNkantolo ingake ihlanganise ilungelo lokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali ngalé kwekhaya (] New York State Rifle & Lamp; Pistol Association v. Breen, 2022], eshiye leyompikiswano ebekwe ezinkantolo eziphansi kodwa engahileli ukuhlanganiswa kwezethu, noma ukuthi izingxenye zeSiphendulo seNkathilo noma i-Soundalive Baille Clausle uzakugcinwa njengokufanelekile. Inkantolo ishiye ithuba lokuthi amanye amalungelo awahlukaniswangase-kunxebeni ([3]) njengelungelo lokushada noma i-kwesokudla kusese , futhi zingathathwa njengenqubo engaphansi kwembuyiselo, [ngenze] [2] [2] [5] [i-FT] (5]) futhi isebenzisa i-[4] izinqulution (impela ye-odvom).[4], izinqulution, i-odvos.[4], njengoba i-ogciso , i-ose kanye i-osenzi

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo lapho kuhlanganiswa, i-Cornell Information ye- inikeza ukucaciswa okufingqiwe. I-Oyez Project[ inikeza indaba efingqa izinqumo eziningi zezinqumo eziyinhloko. Ukuhlaziya okunzulu okungokomlando, bheka i-Akhil Reedmar’s [[FLT:] i-Bill of Rights: Creation ne-Constantion[FLT:] (IYunivesithi ye-Press, 1998), ehlola incazelo yokuqala ye-Genethi ye-Gracletting [ieqethiwe-Genetics] ku-Bill yamaLungelo.

Isiphetho

ISiphakamiso seMiyalo ye-Incorporation ayikafiki. Njengoba ukuqamba kweNkantolo Ephakeme kushintsha futhi kuphakama imibuzo emisha mayelana nokuzimela, ezobuchwepheshe, namandla ombuso, lemfundiso izoqhubeka iguquka. Okwaqala njengokufundwa okuncane, ukunqikaza kweSichibiyelo se 145 seSigqi seMithelela seminyaka engamashumi amane seSigqi (iminyaka engamashumi amane) sekuye kwaba yinqubo enamandla yokugcinwa kwamalungelo esizwe. Inqubo yokuhlanganisa inqubo yokukhetha amalungelo eqenjini lesizwe. Inqubo yokuhlanganisa i-Gawulayo, ihlanganisa iMidla yomthetho ye-Gade, ihlanganisa i-diagcomply Configtion ne-omssionment, impikiswano yokufinyelela isivikelo somthetho wombuso wamazwe amashumi amabili namashumi amabili, njengoba iqinisekisa kanjalo i-1920% yekhulu leminyaka. Lendaba engoko yomthetho ephambili iyaqhubeka.