Isingeniso: Inethi Lokuphepha Lomthetho - sisekelo Lalabo Abaphelelwa Ikhono

ISigqebhezana soMthetho-sisekelo se-United States saqondwa ekuqaleni ukuthi silinganisela kuphela uhulumeni kahulumeni. Ohulumeni boMbuso bashiywe bekhululekile ukuchaza izinga lenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, iqiniso elashiya amaMelika amaningi − ikakhulukazi amalungu amaqembu angaphansi kwemingcele ecindezelayo. Imfundiso yokufakwa kwemithetho engokomthetho ecindezelayo, esekelwe ekunqandeni kweSichibiyelo se 144 seSimemezelo i-Stive Procession Claus, ngokuyisisekelo yashintsha lendawo. Ngokufuna ukuba ohulumeni bahloniphe amalungelo amaningi akhahlisiwe kuyi-Bill of Rights, ukuhlangana okungakhethi kuye kwaba inqubo engokomthetho ebucayi yokuvikela ukucwaswa kwemindedwa, nokuxhaphaza abantu, nezenzo zombuso ezibonisa ubandlululo.

Ukukhetha akukona ukusetshenziswa okuzenzekelayo noma okugcwele kweSikhulu samalungelo esizwe. Kunalokho, kulandela icala, ngokuyiso kanye, ngezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Le nqubo ehlanganisayo iqinisekisa ukuthi yilawo malungelo abhekwa “engqondweni yecebo lenkululeko egunyaziwe” enziwa ukuba abophe imibuso. Kubantu abasengozini. Kubantu abambalwa abasengozini, abesifazane, i-LGBTQ+, abantu abakhubazekile, abampofu, kanye nabantu abambalwa benkolo yimoto eyinhloko okuye kwavikelwa ngayo inkululeko yabo eyisisekelo yomphakathi.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando Sokungavumelani Okungokomlando

Uhambo lokukhetha lwaqala ngesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [iNkantolo Ephakeme] ku- Barron v. Baltimore [1833], eyayithi iBill of Rights yasebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela, hhayi ezizweni. Leso sinqumo saqala amashumi eminyaka, ngisho nangemva kokudukiswa kweSimemezelo seSichibiyelo se 1450 ngo-18, esiqukethe inkulumo ethi “kungabe kuzakuphucwa nanoma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Imizamo yangaphambili yokusebenzisa iSichibiyelo seGade kaBill samaLungelo ezifundazweni yalahlwa, njengaku [FOLD:] iCast - Case [FT] [F3] [F3] [5], lapho i-Geneticston yeNka, lapho i-Genetton yeNka, noma i-Instrunethiodmiants]

Imfundiso yesimanje yokukhetha inqubo elandelwayo yavela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili. Gitlow v. New York (1925), iNkantolo Ephakeme yabonisa ukuthi inkululeko yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala sokukhuluma nokunyathelisa yasetshenziswa ezizweni ngenkathi ye-Cest Procesting Claus. Kwakuyisikhathi esibalulekile. [kumashumi ambalwa alandelayo], iNkantolo yasebenzisa “amalungelo angokwezimo" ukunquma ukuthi yimaphi amalungiselelo eSivumelwano enkululeko ekhululekile ayebalulekile kakhulu kangangokuba kumelwe ukuba ahloselwe ukudumisa. Njengoba iJadozozozo ngomehluko odumileyo [kuyiNkathi yeNkathi yeNkathi Emnyama]. [FLT] i-Connecticut [Foct:] [Foct:] [3] [197], i-octive suptry i-odroirry elungele ukumiswa kwenkululeko."inqulution kumele ukumiswa kwenkululeko." i-Brithi efuna ukumiswa ngokukhetha iNka

Ngezinqumo ezilandelanayo, [1] Eziningi zazo ezivela ekungabini nabulungisa okuye kwaphathwa ngokungenabulungisa kwamaqembu angenazikhundla − leNkantolo iye yahlanganisa cishe wonke amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo. Okuphawulekayo kuhlanganisa ukwenqabela kweSichibiyelo sesithathu ukunqatshelwa kwamasosha okuthatha ikota, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu semfuneko ye-projekthi enkulu yokumangalela amajaji amakhulu, nesivikelo seSimemezelo seNguquko se-8 se-parsch. Kodwa isivikelo esiyinhloko (inkululeko yokukhuluma, ukuvikelwa kwenkolo, ukuphehlwa nokuquleka okungakholeki, ilungelo lokumelana nofakazi, ilungelo lokumelana nomthetho omkhulu, nokugwetshwa kwesijeziso esinonya nesijeziso esingavamile.) sisebenza ngokugcwele kuhulumeni bendawo.

Indlela Izakhamuzi Ezingavikeleka Ngayo Ngokuqondile

Amaqembu angenalutho yilawo aye akhishwa ekuhlanganyeleni ngokugcwele ekuphileni komphakathi noma ekucwaseni okulawulwa izimiso. Ngenxa yokuthi uhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo bavame ukumisa imithetho elimaza lamaqembu ngokuqondile, ukufakwa kweqembu ngokukhetha kwaba yithuluzi elibalulekile lokubekela imithetho enjalo inselele enkantolo kahulumeni. Ngezansi, sihlola indlela ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo athile kuye kwavikela ngayo imiphakathi eminingana esengozini.

Ubuncane Bezinhlanga Nezinhlanga

Akukho qembu eliye lazuza kakhulu ekukhetheni ukuhlanganiswa kwezinhlanga ezimbalwa, ikakhulukazi ama-Afrika. IziNguqulo ze-Reconstructon @ Thirtenth, 145th, ne-15th . qhazo zaklanyelwa ukuchitha uhlelo olungokomthetho lobugqila, kodwa eNingizimu zamisa ngokushesha isimiso esisha sokuhlukanisa nokuhlukanisa okwaziwa ngokuthi uJim Crow. Emashumini amashumi eminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuhlukaniswa kwesizwe ngaphansi “kodwa kodwa kuyalingana” nemfundiso ye .[FLT:][FLY] 1866]. Nokho, ukuhlanganiswa kwemithetho yeNkanto ekhethekile kwavumela ukuba ekugcineni imithetho yeNkantolo ibangele ukugqekelelwa kwenkululeko yenkululeko yombuso njengemithetho eyisisekelo.

Icala elichithiwe kwakuyi- Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954]), eyayithi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikelo seSiphetho se 144. Nakuba uBrown wanqunyelwa ekuvikelekeni okulinganayo kunezizathu, ingqondo yakhe yayisekelwe embonweni wokuthi ukufundiswa okungagunyazi ukuvukela kwakuyisisekelo. Amacala afaka iSiphendulo Sokuqala seSiphendulo senkulumo nenhlangano ukuze avikele izikhundla zamalungelo omphakathi. [[FLT:]] [FLT:]] [2]] Izindawo ezihlobanayo, i-coolton [[FLLT:3] [63]) ahlula ukukholelwa ekuvulweni kwemigomo enokuthula kwezwe yi-pardelse, afaka izinyathelo ezinyazweni ezinyazanywe yi-inqulution. [Fopt] [fredvoption:[4] [f] [f] ku-Foption:[4]

Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni okungacabangeki nokuquleka, okusetshenziswa ku- Mapp v.Ohio [1961], nakho kwathinta kakhulu imiphakathi emincane. Amaphoyisa manje ayedingeka ukuze athole izivumelwano ezisekelwe ngokunokwenzeka, anciphise ikhono lokulawula izinhlanga ngaphansi kokubekwa umthetho wezwe ngokungemthetho. Ukukhipha umthetho − qhawe ngokungekho emthethweni kwathola ubufakazi obuthiwayo [1] Kwaveza ikhambi elinokubaluleka ngokumelene nenqubo exhaphazayo.

Abesifazane Nezinhlokwana Ezincane

Ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo abesifazane kuye kwasiza ekuthuthukiseni amalungelo abesifazane. Nakuba i-Uncime E Protection Claus of the 1450 Refection yaqale yachazwa njengomthetho wokuqala owehlisa ubandlululo olusekelwe ebulilini, ukufakwa kwenqubo efanele namalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu kwavula amathuba amasha. Reed v. [1971], iNkantolo ePhakeme ngokokuqala ngqá yawuqeda umthetho wezwe owawuhlukanisa ubulili, usebenzisa i-Superline Protection Religiod ku-readstion of the First, From, Commontrost, Commust, ne-Prectionations .[12]

[[FLT:] [[FLT]] Roe v. [773]), iNkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokufihla imfihlo lidluliselwe esinqumweni sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa. Nakuba Roe[[ kusukela ngalesosikhathi [imfundiso yangasese] yakhiwe ngokufakwa kwemizwa. [[FLT:] Imfundiso yangasese] yakhiwe ngokufakwa kwemizwa. [[FLT]] Muva nje] Umfazi uwelwele wempilo eqinile [ [20] (20] u-20] u-Expt kusivikelo lwenkululeko ye-145] sokukhipha imingcele yokukhipha isisu eTexawuli efuna ngokunakekela.

Kubantu abathi bangene transgender, ukuhlanganisa ngokukhetha kuye kwanikeza isisekelo semithetho ebekela inselele ephika ukwelashwa okufanayo. ku-Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlanganisa ilungelo lokushada kanye no-xtensin ngaphansi kwe-Integerment ne-Monual Project Classible Provices. Nakuba icala ngokuyinhloko libhekise isimilo socansis, ukucabanga kwayo okuthi ilungelo lokushada liyinkululeko eyinhloko yokuvikela abantu abashadile emshadweni nabazali. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlanganiswa kwenkululeko yokukhuluma ngenkululeko yokukhuluma ngenkululeko ephakathi kwabantu ngabanye ukuze babonise ubulili babo ngaphandle kokucukuhla.

LGBTQ+ Umphakathi

Ukuhlanganiswa kwelungelo lokuhlangana ngokuseduze nokufihla imfihlo kwashintsha i-LGBTQ+ abantu ngabanye. Umthetho wale nkantolo (), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaseTexas eyamisa umthetho owephula umthetho ofanayo wokuhlanganisa i-sodoma. UJaji Kennedy, ubhalela iningi, wakholelwa ukuthi inkululeko evikelwe yi-Uhlelo luka-Clauscee yayihlanganisa ilungelo labantu abadala lokuhlanganyela ekuziphatheni okubi ngokwesicanu ngaphandle komthetho. [[FLT:]

Ukwakhiwa Inkululeko , iNkantolo [i-Obergefell v. Hodges (2015]) yakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lokushada laliyinkululeko eyisisekelo evikelwe yi-Sect Programme Claus nezindawo ezingaphiki imibhangqwana efanayo enelungelo lokushada. Lesinqumo sahlanganisa ukulingana njengomthetho sisekelo wesizwe welungelo, imithetho esekela umthetho wezwe eyayivimbele umshado ofanayo wezeshumi nambili. Isinqumo sasinezinzuzo ezisheshayo ze LGBTQ, kuhlanganise namalungelo okutholwa, amafa, izinzuzo ezikhululekile, nokuhayisha. Ngaphandle kokuqaphela isigaba esivamile sesobunxele, imibhangqwana eminingi engokomthetho.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuhlanganiswa kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala sokukhuluma ngokukhululekile kanye nezigaba zokuzivivinya ezikhululekile kuye kwavikela iLGBTQ + abantu abathile ekucubungulweni kwenkulumo yabo nemithetho kahulumeni ezobaphoqa ukuba bafihle ukuthi bangobani. INkantolo iye yagomela ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi umbuso awunakuphoqelela abantu ukuba bakhulume ngezindlela ezilulaza isithunzi sabo, zisekela lesivikelo esisekelwe eSiphendulweni sokuqala esihlanganisiwe.

Abantu Abakhubazekile

Nakuba uhlaka lwamalungelo okukhubazeka lwanamuhla luyi-stalution (i-starnory (i-American eneSivumelwano sokukhubazeka sango-1990, i-Rehabilitation Act ka-1973), ukufakwa kwamalungiselelo athile omthetho-sisekelo kuye kwanikeza isivikelo esengeziwe. ISichibiyelo seSiphamiso se-Heighth sobuningi sokunqanda unya nesijeziso esingavamile, esifakwe Robinson] v. [[FLT] California[FLD] [1962]] [1962] [indlela]), isetshenziselwa ukubulala umthetho kazwe owenze ulwenze ulwenze ulwesilo lomthetho oluluyiluthayo lokusebenzisa izimpawu ezimele. INkanto evame ukuhlobana nokukhubazeka okungu-8. Lesimiso siye sasetshenziswa ekuvikeleni abantu ekuguleni izigwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegweni ngeze ngeze ngezenzo.

I-Gast Process Claus isetshenziswa futhi ekunikezeni izimo ukunakekelwa okufanele kubantu abakhubazekile. Insizwaberg v. Romeo (19982], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi umuntu okhubazekile ngengqondo ezinikele esigunyeni udinga inqubo efanele yokunikeza ukwelashwa okufaneleyo ezimweni ezilondekile, inkululeko ekuzibambeni komzimba, nokuqeqeshwa okulinganiselwe kancane. Muva nje, Olmstead v. L.] [1999]) wachaza i-ADA ukuba ifune ukunikeza ukunakekelwa komphakathi okusekelwe ekuhlelekeni, kodwa futhi nokuqeqeshwa okulinganiselwe ekuboneni kwayo inzuzo elungiselelweni i-Claudius.

Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo nasekuqubukeni kuye kwaba okubalulekile futhi kubantu abakhubazekile, ikakhulukazi emongweni wezindaba zokuzibophezela nokunakekela. Izinkantolo ziye zafuna ukuba kulandele izigwebo eziqinile ngaphambi kokuba kuncishwe umuntu inkululeko engokomzimba, ziqinisekise ukuthi abantu abasengozini abagcinwa ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele.

Abantu Abaswele Ngokomnotho

Abampofu ngokuvamile baye baba yizisulu kakhulu zokuphaphanyiswa, ikakhulukazi esimisweni sokwahlulela kobugebengu. Ukukhetha kuye kwanikeza izixwayiso ezibalulekile kubamangalelwa abangemthetho. Gedeon v. Wainright [1963], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi ilungelo leSiphakamiso seSithathu somthetho esisetshenziswa ekubekeni izigebengu, ifuna ukuba kunikezwe ummeli abamangalelwa abangenakukwazi ukukhokhela omunye. Lesi sinqumo sasisashintsha isimo ngenxa yokuthi sasilingana nokudlala phakathi kwesicebi nompofu. Ngokufanayo, Griffin. Illinone [v:] [FLD] [FFF:3] [56])) isho ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala labo abamangalelwayo okugculisayo okunga, i-Calsurectives Procectives of Gazectivesss.

Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesibhozo esinqabela amafa ehlawumbiwe ngokweqile, esisetshenziswa ku- Timbs v. Indiana (2029), sivikela abantu abathola imali ephansi ekuphanjweni impahla yabo yizwe ngenani lemali encishisiwe. Lesinqumo sahlola ikhono likahulumeni namaphoyisa endawo ukuze sizuze ekuthatheni impahla yabampofu. I-Classiaste yeNdlela idinga futhi ukunikeza ukuzwa ngaphambi kokuqeda inzuzo yenhlalakahle ( Goldberg v., 1970, siqinisekisa ukuthi isimo asinakunqamula ngaphandle kosizo olubalulekile.

Izindlu Ezincane Ezingokwenkolo Nabafuduki

I-Free Exening Claus yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala, efakwe ku- Cantwell v.Connecticut (1940]), ivikela izinkolo ezincane emithethweni kahulumeni ehlasela izinkolelo zazo noma imisebenzi. Ngokwesibonelo, oFakazi BakaJehova bazuza kuqala lapho iNkantolo ishaya umthetho kahulumeni ofuna abaceli benkolo ukuba bathole imvume, bephethe ukuthi umbuso awunakukwazi ukubeka imibandela yokusebenzisa inkolo ilayisense esemthethweni. [[FLT:] [FLT:]] [FLT] V.V.[FLT:] [196] [193]), iNkathi imvume yokuvikela abantu abangokwenkolo ayinakuvimbela ukuvikelwa izinkolelo zabo eziqinile.[5]

Kubantu abafudukayo, ukuhlangana ngokukhethayo kuye kwalinganiselwa ngoba uhulumeni kahulumeni ugcina amandla avulekile ekuthuthweni kwabantu. Nokho, i-Ucry Procession Claus ivikela abantu, hhayi nje izakhamuzi, phakathi kwensimu yase-U.S.. Plyler v. Doe (19982], iNkantolo ePhakathi yeNkantolo ePhakathi yeTexas enqabayo imfundo yomphakathi engakhokhwa ukuthi izingane ezingakhonjwanga. Inkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi ukucwaswa kwalezi zingane yi-Clauslee, icabanga ukuthi izingane zazingenacala nganoma yikuphi ukwephulwa kwezemfundo nokuthi imfundo yayibalulekile. Izeze, iboneke ngisho nasezindaweni ezingcono, lapho kutholakala ngisho nakungcono kakhulu ukuvikelwa kwezenzo zikahulumeni. [Foct:]Foct3][2001], i-Es Troupt Trectivections (evetualssssss) (ectionment ofs ofs ofs ofs of

Imingcele Yokukhetha

Naphezu kwamandla ayo, ukuhlanganiswa ngokukhetha akusona isihlangu esiphelele. Akuwona wonke amalungiselelo eSiphendulo Sesihlanu sokubekwa kwamacala amajaji amakhulu kahulumeni. Isidingo seSichibiyelo sesithathu sokuvikela amasosha angena emasontweni sisebenza ezweni. Isivikelo seSiphendu sesitha asizange sifakwe, nakuba kungadingekile. Okubaluleke kakhulu ukuthi, ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesibili lokugcina nokuphatha izikhali lifakwe kuphela [McDonald v. [20] [20]), kanye nezingalo zalokho okuhlala kusekulungile kusekhona. Abantu abahlala bephila ngemithetho eqinile bangathola amalungelo abo enqandeziwe, kodwa futhi bangabhekana nezingozi ezikhubazeni zobudlova ezibondliwe.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukukhetha ukuhlanganisa akukuvimbeli ngokuzenzakalelayo ukucwasana kwezwe. Izindinganiso zeNkantolo Ephakeme zokubukeza ziyahlukahluka. Ukuze ihlukanise izinhlanga, iNkantolo isebenzisa ukucubungula okuqinile, okunzima ukukwanelisa imibuso. Kodwa uma kuhlelwa ngokwezici ezisekelwe ekukhubazekeni, ebudalani, noma emfuno, iNkantolo ivame ukusebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo, inikeza ukucwebezela okukhulu. Lokhu kusho ukuthi amaqembu angahlali kahle ahlukaniswa ngokuthi “uhlelo” noma“ amahlelo awe-asi" ngaphansi kwe-Actisi Protection Ecuty Claus angakuthola kunzima ukubekela inselele imithetho yomthetho esemthethweni yokuthatha icala ngokuphathana kuphela.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukuvikelwa kwabantu abasengozini kuxhomeke ekuzimiseleni kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuqaphela amalungelo amasha ayisisekelo. Eminyakeni yamuva, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yathatha indlela yokuqapha ukuhlanganiswa, inqaba ukudala izigaba ezintsha zamalungelo ayisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-Curtive Process Claus. Ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo yehla yamaDobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022] ukuqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lokukhipha isisu, ukugumbula [ v. futhi ibuyisela umbangokwale. Lesi sinqumo siqokomisa ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa akunciphikiswanga noma kuncipheliswe ngefilosofi yokwahlulela.

Isiphetho: Ukukhetha Inkululeko Yokuzikhethela Njengesiqinisekiso Esiphilayo

Ukukhetha okufakwayo kuseyimfundiso ebaluleke kakhulu yomthetho-sisekelo yokuvikela amalungelo abantu abasengozini. Ngokuhlanganisa iningi elikhulu lamalungelo ohulumeni bombuso, kuqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo ($speech, print, joli, inkolo, iluleko, ukuzifihla, nenqubo efaneleyo ingaphansi kwemizwa yomthetho-mthetho. Umlando wokufakwa kwamalungelo abantu abasengozini ungokomlando wenkululeko eyandayo: kusukela ekuhlanganisweni kwenkululeko yokukhuluma ukuze uvikele abaphikisayo bezombangazwe, ukuhlanganiswa kwelungelo lokunikeza abampofu iseluleko, ukulingana komshado kwamuva kwemibhangqwana efanayo.

Kunoma ubani okuphila kwakhe kuxhomeke ekuvikelweni kwelungelo lomthetho-sisekelo, ukuhlanganiswa okukhethayo yibhuloho elingokomthetho phakathi kwesithembiso seSimemezelo samalungelo namandla kahulumeni angokoqobo. Izakhamuzi ezihloniphekile ziye zaba yizinzuzo eziyinhloko zalelibhuloho, zisebenzisela ukubekela inselele ukuhlukaniswa, ukucwaswa, ukujeziswa ngobugebengu, nokuncishwa kwezinkonzo eziyisisekelo. Njengoba isizwe siqhubeka silwa nezimpikiswano zokungalingani nokungabi nabulungisa, ukuhlangana okukhethayo kuhlala kuyithuluzi elibalulekile lokuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mbuso ongaphika amalungelo abantu baso ayisisekelo achaza inkululeko yaseMelika.

[[Umthetho:0] Imithombo:[[[Umthetho:1]