Table of Contents

Icala elinophawu lwezwe limelela izikhathi ezibalulekile emlandweni wokwahlulela ezidlulela ngalé kwezindawo zasenkantolo. Lezi zinqumo zicacisa kakhulu indawo engokomthetho, zimisa izenzakalo ezibophayo zemithetho yesikhathi esizayo, futhi zithonye kakhulu indlela izigidi zabantu eziphila ngayo ukuphila kwazo kwansuku zonke. Kumalungelo esiwasebenzisayo lapho sisebenzelana nokugcinwa komthetho ezikoleni izingane zethu eziya kuzo kanye nesivikelo esisijabulela emsebenzini, amacala avelele athinta cishe zonke izici zomphakathi wanamuhla. Ukuqonda indlela lezi zinqumo zokwahlulela eziguqulela ngayo ebubini bezwe langempela.

Ukuqonda Amacala Nezenzakalo Ezingokomthetho

E-United States, izinqumo zenkantolo eziwuphawu zivela kaningi eNkantolo Ephakeme. Lamacala athola izigqebhezana zawo ezithi "uphawu" hhayi ngenxa nje yobunkimbinkimbi noma ukunaka komphakathi, kodwa ngenxa yokuthi amisa izimiso ezintsha zomthetho-mthetho noma aguqula ngokuphawulekayo izincazelo ezikhona zamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo nomthetho womthetho-mthetho. INkantolo ayilona igunya lokwahlulela eliphakeme kakhulu eUnited States kuphela kodwa futhi ingumhumushi wokugcina woMthetho-sisekelo, incwadi yokusungulwa kwentando yeningi yethu.

Izinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme zimisa izenzakalo ezingokomthetho ezimisa ukumiswa kwezimiso nokusetshenziswa kwesilinganiso sedolobha, isifundazwe, nohulumeni. Lesi simiso sesibonelo, esaziwa ngokuthi stare decisis[, kusho ukuthi izinkantolo eziphansi kumelwe zilandele izimiso ezingokomthetho ezimiswe izinkantolo eziphakeme ezisezinhlangothini ezifanayo. Uma iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha isinqumo, yenza ithonya elinamandla kuyo yonke isimiso sokwahlulela, ithonya indlela abahluleli abachaza ngayo imithetho, indlela izigebengu ezimisa ngayo imithetho emisha, nendlela izinhlangano zikahulumeni ezisebenzisa ngayo iziqondiso.

Ngisho nezinkantolo eziphakeme zase - United States zingakhipha izinqumo eziwuphawu olunamandla ezithonya ukucabanga okungokomthetho ezibusweni eziningi, nakuba igunya lazo eliqondile lihlala lilinganiselwe emazweni azo.

Brown v. iBoard yemfundo: Ukuguqula iNhlangano yaseMelika

Mhlawumbe akukho cala elibonisa kangcono ithonya elinamandla lesinqumo somphakathi obalulekile kuneBrown v. Board of Education. Kulesi sinqumo esiyingqophamlando, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ukwahlukanisa izingane ezikoleni zomphakathi ngesisekelo somjaho kwakungesona isisekelo somthetho. Isinqumo sango- 1954 asizange simane sishintshe isimiso semfundo (isithiway activeism) yonke inhlangano yezenhlalo futhi ngokuyisisekelo sabekela inselele isisekelo esingokomthetho sobuhlanga.

Isisekelo Esingokomthetho

Inkantolo ehlangene yagumbuqela uPlessy v. Ferguson futhi yakholelwa ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni efuna noma evumela izikole ezihlukene ngokohlanga iphula i-Encial Protection Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14th. Isu leNkantolo yayicacile kodwa yayinenguquko: "Izemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo." lesi simemezelo sezehlakalo ezingokomthetho ezaye zavumela ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso "ehlukene kodwa ezilinganayo".

Imfundo mhlawumbe iwumsebenzi obaluleke kakhulu wohulumeni bezwe nezwe, futhi imithetho yesikole ephoqelelwe kanye nezindleko ezinkulu zemfundo kokubili kubonisa ukuqaphela kwethu ukubaluleka kwemfundo emphakathini wethu wentando yeningi. Ngokuqaphela indima eyinhloko yemfundo ekuphileni kwaseMelika, iNkantolo yavuma ukuthi izikole ezihlukene zalimaza kakhulu okungalé kwezindawo ezingokomzimba noma izinto zemfundo.

Ithonya Elandile Emphakathini

Ukuqeda ukwahlukana ezikoleni zomphakathi zenza inhlangano yamalungelo abantu yakha intuthuko enkulu, yenza intuthuko engenzeka ekuhlukaniseni izindlu, izindawo zomphakathi, nezinhlangano zemfundo ephakeme. Isinqumo sashukumisa abashisekeli benkolo futhi sanikeza izikhali ezingokomthetho zokuhlukanisa abantu kuzo zonke izinhlobo. Ezicini eziningi, imibono eshiwo kuBrown v. iBard yayishukumisele iphupho lomphakathi osekelwe ekulungeni nasebuhlangani.

Nokho, indlela esuka ekusebenziseni umthetho wokwahlulela yabonakala inde futhi inzima. Isinqumo esingamakhasi ayi 14 asizange sisho indlela yokuqeda ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni, futhi isinqumo sesibili seNkantolo eBrown II (11955) kuphela esayalwe ukuba kususwe imibuso ehloniphiswe "ngesivinini samabomu". Le-panel eyimfihlo yavumela ama-odethi amaningi ukuba abambezele iminyaka noma ngisho namashumi eminyaka.

Ukwenqaba okumhlophe ukunqatshelwa kwesikole kwaphumela ekumelaneni okusobala nokulwa ngobudlova, okwakudinga ukusetshenziswa kwamabutho kahulumeni eLittle Rock, e-Arkansas, ngo-1957. Naphezu kwalezi zinselele, intuthuko yagcina ivele. Ukungaqiniseki ngemva kwenani labafundi abaNsundu ababhalise ezikoleni ezihlaziyiwe eNingizimu lasuka kumaphesenti angaphansi kwephesenti elilodwa kuya kwamashumi amane.

Izinselele Eziqhubekayo

Ifa likaBrown lisenzima futhi liphikiswana nalo. Ngisho nanamuhla, umsebenzi kaBrown awukapheli, ngoba amacala esikole angaphezu kuka-200 ahlale evulekile ezikhumulweni zenkantolo zikahulumeni. Izinselele zanamuhla zihlanganisa ukuhlanganiswa okuqhutshwa ngezindlela zokuhlala nezimiso zesikole ezikhethelwe zona, okubonisa ukuthi izinqumo ezivelele, nakuba zinamandla, azikwazi ukuguqula izakhiwo zezenhlalo ezigxilile kanye.

Ukwahlulela Ngokulunga Kobugebengu: UMiranda noGideon

Amacala amabili aphawulekayo ngokuyisisekelo ashintsha indlela isimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu esisebenza ngayo, amisa izivikelo manje abantu abaningi baseMelika abazithatha kalula lapho bebuka izenzakalo zamaphoyisa kuthelevishini noma lapho bebona ukugcinwa komthetho ngokoqobo.

UMiranda mayelana no - Arizona: Ilungelo Lokuthula

EMiranda naku - Arizona ngo - 1966, iNkantolo Ephakeme yacabangela amacala amane ahlukene lapho abamangalelwa bavuma khona icala ngemva kokuboshwa nokuphenywa amaphoyisa ngaphandle kokutshelwa ngelungelo labo lokuba nommeli. Icala lavela ekuboshweni kuka - Ernesto Miranda ePhoenix, owayengatshelwanga ngelungelo lakhe lokunikeza iseluleko, futhi ngemva kokuphenywa amahora amabili, wasayina ukuvuma icala.

INkantolo yathola ukuthi iziNkantolo zeSiphendulo sesihlanu neseSithandathu zifuna amaphoyisa ukuba azise abantu abasejele ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula futhi basizwe ummeli. Lesi sinqumo sadala lokho manje esikwaziyo ngokuthi "Maranda amalungelo" noma "Izixwayiso zeMiranda" `Izimemo ezivamile eziqala ngokuthi "Unelungelo lokuthula..."

Ithonya elingokoqobo likaMiranda lidlulela nakuwo wonke amabhande aseMelika. Amaphoyisa kumelwe manje azise abasolwa ngamalungelo awo angokomthetho ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwelungelo lokuthola isigwebo, noma noma yiziphi izinkulumo ezitholakalayo zingase zingangeni emacaleni.

UGideyoni Wainwright: Ilungelo Lokwelulekwa

INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma uGideyoni, ithi iSichibiyelo Sesithupha sidinga ukuba abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abangathembekile banikezwe ummeli mahhala.Icala laqala lapho uClarence Earl Gideon, eqashelwa, enxusa ijaji ukuba limnikeze ummeli mahhala, kodwa ijaji laphika isicelo sakhe.

INkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo sesithupha selungelo lokusiza ekunikezeni iseluleko siyasebenza ekuqulweni kwecala futhi "izephulamthetho ezinkantolo zobugebengu aziyona imfuno yokunethezeka." Lesi simiso siyaqaphela ukuthi ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwesimiso somthetho kwenza ukubukeka kochwepheshe kubaluleke ekuqulweni kwecala ngokulunga, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izimali zommangalelwa zingakanani.

Kanye nelungelo lokusiza abamangalelwa becala likahulumeni, isinqumo sikaGideyoni saba nomphumela wokwandisa izimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela izwe lonke. Namuhla, amahhovisi omphakathi akhona ezikhungweni zezwe lonke, anikeza izimpawu ezingokomthetho kulabo abangakwazi ukukhokhela abameli abangabodwa. Lesisekelo simelela umphumela oqondile, obonakalayo wesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ethinta amakhulu ezinkulungwane zabamangalelwa bezigebengu minyaka yonke.

Amalungelo Okuzifunela Awethu

Amacala amaningana aphawula izinto aye aguqula ukuqonda kwamaMelika amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu, ngisho nakuba igama elithi "privracy" lingaveli ndawo embhalweni woMthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo ziye zachaza amalungiselelo ahlukahlukene omthetho-sisekelo ovikela ukuzimela komuntu siqu ezindabeni kusukela ekuvimbeleni nokuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuvimbela ukuphatha.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemfundiso Yokuzifihla

UMthetho-sisekelo usikisela ilungelo lokufihla imfihlo ezindabeni zokuvimbela inzalo phakathi kwabantu abashadile. Lesi simiso, esasungulwa eGriswold v. Connecticut (1965), saqaphela ukuthi izinguquko ezihlukahlukene zomthetho sisekelo zidala "izindawo zemfihlo" noma izindawo zomuntu siqu ezivikela izinqumo eziseduze ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni.

Isimiso sezindaba zomuntu siqu esasungulwa kulezi zimo sathonya izinqumo ezalandela ngokuphathelene namalungelo okuzala, ubuhlobo bomkhaya, nokuzibusa komuntu siqu.

Intuthuko Yamuva Emalungelo Okuzala

KuDobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhetha ukugumbuqela lezo zinqumo eziphawulekayo. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo awuqinisekisi ukuthi kufanele kukhishwe isisu, njengoba lelilungelo lingashiwo ngokucacile embhalweni, futhi alikho ngokwanele "okusekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni wesizwe nasesikweni" ukuthathwa njengokushiwo kahle ngaphansi kwe-Created Claus.

Lesi sinqumo sibonisa indlela amacala aphawulekayo angagumbuqelwa ngayo, ngokuyinhloko ashintshe indawo engokomthetho. Ushintsho luye lwaba nemiphumela esebenzayo ngokushesha, lapho amazwe ahlukahlukene amukela izindlela ezihlukahlukene zokukhipha isisu, enza lokho abanye abakuchaza ngokuthi umsebenzi owumcimbi wamalungelo okuzala kulo lonke izwe.

Inkululeko Yokuchithwa Kokuqala Ekuphileni Kwansuku Zonke

Icala leSichibiyelo Sokuqala liye lachaza imingcele yenkululeko yokukhuluma, yenkululeko yokunyathelisa, nenkululeko engokwenkolo emongweni osukela ezikoleni kuya ekubhikisheni komphakathi kuya ekumangalelweni kwemithombo yezindaba.

Amalungelo Okukhuluma Abafundi

INkantolo Ephakeme yathi abafundi abawaqedi amalungelo abo angokomthetho enkululeko yokukhuluma... esangweni lesikole. Lesi simiso se-Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) saqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi bagcina iSichibiyelo Sokuqala esikoleni, nakuba inkulumo yabafundi yayingavinjelwa kuphela uma iphazamisa inqubo yemfundo.

Loluhlelo luyaqhubeka luthonya izingxabano eziphathelene nendlela yabafundi, kusukela ekuvukeleni kwezombangazwe kuya ezikhungweni zomphakathi. Izikole kumelwe zilinganisele umsebenzi wazo wemfundo futhi zidinge ukuhleleka nxamnye namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo wabafundi, okuthi izinkantolo ziqhubeke zicwenga njengoba kuvela izindlela ezintsha zokukhuluma nokuxhumana.

Inkululeko Yokusakaza Nenkulumo Yeningi

Ukuze uwine icala lomphakathi, izibalo zomphakathi kumelwe zibonise "inzondo esemthethweni" kumbhali. Lendinganiso, emiswe kuNew York Times v. Sullivan (1964), inikeza isivikelo esibalulekile kubacosheli bezindaba nabanye ababhala ngezikhulu zomphakathi nangezibalo zomphakathi. Umthetho kumelwe uvikele abalobi emasudini omphakathi ukuqinisekisa "ukungathandeki, ukuvuleka nokubanzi" ngenkulumo - mpikiswano ngezibalo zomphakathi.

Lesivikelo senza ukuba uphengululo lwezincwadi oluphenyisiwe, ukukhulumela kwezombangazwe, nokugxeka komphakathi labo abasemagunyeni. Ngaphandle kwalokhu kuvikela, usongo lwamacala lungathuntubeza inkulumo yasobala ebalulekile futhi lunciphise ikhono lezindaba lokusebenza njengesehlo emandleni kahulumeni.

Ukufuna Nokuzimela: ISichibiyelo Sesine Sesivikelo

Izigwebo zeSichibiyelo Sesine ziye zamisa imithetho ebusa lapho amaphoyisa engahlola khona indawo, athathe ubufakazi, futhi ahlole indlela lezi zinqumo ezisebenza ngayo ngokuqondile nendlela abantu abasebenza ngayo umthetho nokuthi iziphi isivikelo abangasilindela emakhaya abo, ezimotweni, nasemiphumeleni yomuntu siqu.

Umthetho Oyinqaba

Lesimiso, esasungulwa eMap v. Ohio (1961), sikhuthaza amaphoyisa ukuba ahloniphe amalungelo eSichibiyelo sesine. INkantolo Ephakeme yavuma futhi yasebenzisa umthetho wokuhlukanisa wezwe weSonto no - United States (1914).

Umthetho ohlukanisayo usho ukuthi ngisho nobufakazi obuqand ’ ikhanda obungabufakanga kumelwe buncishiswe uma amaphoyisa ebuthola ngokuhlola okungekho emthethweni noma ngokuthatheka.

Izinselele Zokuba Wedwa Kwanamuhla

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe bushintsha, izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zisebenzisa izimiso zesine Isichibiyelo ezintweni ezintsha. Imibuzo ephathelene nokuhlola ucingo, ukulandelela i - GPS, ukuhlola imishini nokuthungatha ukwaziswa idinga ukuba abahluleli bachaze izinhlelo zomthetho - sisekelo ezabhalwa emakhulwini eminyaka adlule ngobuchwepheshe obungakaze bucatshangelwe.

Ezentengiselwano Namandla Asempini

Amacala achaza i - Commerce Claus aye athonya ukulinganisela kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni, okuye kwabangela ukugcinwa kwemithetho engokomnotho, isivikelo sendawo ezungezile, namalungelo omphakathi.

Igunya Lomphakathi Elandayo

INkantolo yathi iyindima kahulumeni kahulumeni ukulawula ezentengiselwano nokuthi ohulumeni bezwe abanakukwazi ukusungula imithetho yabo yezentengiselwano elawulayo. Lesi simiso seGibbons v. Ogden (1824) samisa ukuphakama kukahulumeni ezindabeni zezentengiselwano zamazwe. INkantolo yakha incazelo ebanzi ka "ummemezeli," icabanga ukuthi leligama lalihlanganisa okungaphezu nje kokuthengisa nokuthenga, futhi lanquma ukuthi ukuqondisa ukuthutha amanzi eqinisweni kwakuyisenzo esilawula ibhizinisi.

Ithonya leGibbons lisazwakala nanamuhla njengoba linikeza uhulumeni wezwe isisekelo esibanzi sokulawula intengiselwano yezomnotho. Lencazelo ebanzi yamandla ezentengiselwano kahulumeni ivule i-Congress ukuba ixazulule izindaba zezisebenzi kusukela ezindinganisweni zezemisebenzi kuya ekuvikeleni indawo ezungezile kuya emalungelweni omphakathi, njengoba lezizindaba ngokuvamile zihilela ezentengiselwano zamazwe ngandlela-thile.

Izisebenziso ezisebenzayo

Igunya lezentengiselwano liyithethelele imithetho yeholo elilinganiselwe kahulumeni, imithetho yokuphepha emsebenzini, izivikelo zendawo ezungezile, kanye nokuvinjelwa kwezindawo zokuhlala zomphakathi. Lapho iSishaya-mthetho sidlulisa uMthetho wamalungelo abantu ka-1964, ngokwengxenye sathembela eCentury Clausce ukuze anqande ubandlululo emahhotela, ezitolo zokudlela, nakwamanye amabhizinisi akhonza abahambi bamazwe ahlukene. Lokhu kubonisa indlela ukuchazwa komthetho ngokomthetho ngomongomunye okungasiza ngayo ukuthuthuka ezindaweni ezibonakala zingafani.

Amalungelo Ezibhamu NeSichibiyelo Sesibili

Ngo-2008, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha isinqumo esiphawulayo seSichibiyelo sesibili ecaleni leSifunda saseColumbia v. Heller, ibulala imithetho eminingi yezibhamu eqinile yaseWashington D.C., eyayihlanganisa ukuvinjelwa okuseduze kokuba nezakhamuzi eziphethe izibhamu. EHeller, iNkantolo yanquma okokuqala ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uvikela ilungelo lezakhamuzi zaseMelika lokuba nezibhamu ekhaya ukuze zizitholele izibhamu futhi zizivikele.

Ngaphambi kweHeller, izazi eziningi zomthetho zasekela ukuchazwa okuncane kweSichibiyelo Sesibili, esigxile elungelweni lokuhlela amabutho kunokuvikela ikhaya lomuntu nempahla yakhe. Isinqumo ngokuyisisekelo sabekwa kabusha iSichibiyelo Sesibili, simisa ilungelo lomuntu ngamunye lokudubula ngaphandle kwenkonzo yamabutho.

Ithonya elingokoqobo liye laba eliphawulekayo. Isinqumo asiwuvimbeli wonke umthetho wokulawula izibhamu, nokho, njengoba nje udinga ukuhlakanipha okwengeziwe kubenzi bomthetho, futhi nakuba ukuvinjelwa okuqondile kwezikhali kungasabhekwa njengomthetho-sisekelo, ezinye izimiso ezilawula ukuba nezibhamu kusengamiswa. Kunokuba kuvinjelwe ukuba nezibhamu zomuntu siqu, amadolobha aye adlulisa izimfuneko eziqinile zokuhlola noma izikhathi eziphoqelelwe zokulinda, futhi ngolunye uhlelo lomthetho wokulawula izibhamu alusekho, abenzi bomthetho baye basungula ikhono lokusungula ikhono, basabela eNkantolo ngokusungula ezinye izinqubo zokuxazulula ubugebengu obunobudlova nobudlova bezibhamu.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Namalungelo Omphakathi

Ngaphandle kobandlululo lwesikole, amacala aphawula i - Aumetic Protection aye akhuluma ngobandlululo olusekelwe ebulilini, ohlangani, nakwezinye izici, oluthuthukisa umthetho wemisebenzi, amalungelo okuvota, nokuthola izinkonzo zomphakathi.

Ukucwaswa Ngokohlanga

Abaphathi bezindawo abanakubizwa ngendlela ehlukanisa ubulili; okokuqala ngqá i-Uncimeal Protection Clause yafundwa iNkantolo Ephakeme njengesebenza ebulilini. Lesi simiso seReed v. Reed (1971) saphawula ukuqala kokuhlola okukhulu kokwahlulela ngokuhlelwa kwezimiso ezisekelwe ebulilini.

Umqashi angase angayiqashi abesifazane abanezingane zasenkulisa lapho eqasha izingane ezinjalo. Lokhu kuthatha ku-Phillips noMartin Marietta Corp. (1971) kwasiza ekutholeni ukuthi izimiso zemisebenzi eziphatha amadoda nabesifazane ngokwehlukile ziphula isivikelo somphakathi, zivula indlela yokulingana emsebenzini.

Isinyathelo Esiqinisayo Nethuba Lokufundisa

Regents weYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke (1978) wakhuluma ngokuvuma emfundweni ephakeme, njengoba u-Allan Bakke, umbheki wesicelo esimhlophe, abekela i-University of Davis Medical School inselele inqubo yokuvuma yezenkolo ye-California, eyayigcinela inani elikhethekile lezihlalo kubantu abambalwa abacela, futhi esinqumweni esinzima, iNkantolo yakhipha ngokumelene nokusetshenziswa kwezibalo zobuhlanga ezingeni elivunyelwe.

Lezi zinyathelo zokuvuma zibonisa indlela iNkantolo Ephakeme engayithinta ngayo inqubo ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, njengoba izinqumo eziphathelene nokuthatha isinyathelo sokuvuma zithatha amashumi amaningi eminyaka futhi zithathe izici ezihlukene, zandisa futhi zalula ukuthi yini abenzi bemithetho abangayenza ngokuqondene nokuvuma inqubo yemfundo ephakeme. Izinqumo zamuva zinezinqumo ezilinganiselwe kakhulu ezibonisa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwemfundiso elinganayo yesivikelo.

Inqubo Efanele Nobulungisa Obuyisisekelo

Amacala alandelayo aye asungula izivikelo ezingokwesiko eziqinisekisa ukuthi izenzo zikahulumeni zilungile ezithinta amalungelo abantu ngabanye, kusukela ekuyalweni esikoleni kuya ekuphangweni kwezenzo zobugebengu kuya ekuncishweni impahla.

Amalungelo Omfundi Alindelekile

INkantolo Ephakeme yanqumela abafundi, ithi uma nje umbuso usunikeze imfundo kuzo zonke izakhamuzi zawo, awunakubancisha ngaphandle kokuqinisekisa izivikelo ezifanele zenqubo. Lesi simiso esivela kuGos v. Lopez (1975) sisho ukuthi abafundi ababhekene nokuxoshwa banelungelo lokuqaphela nethuba lokukhishwa esikoleni.

Lesivikelo siqaphela ukubaluleka kwemfundo futhi siqinisekisa ukuthi izikole azinakugodlela abafundi amathuba emfundo ngokungenamdlandla. Imfuneko yokulunga kolwazi oluyisisekelo isebenza kuhulumeni omningi, kusukela ezinzuzoni zezenhlalakahle kuya kumalayisensi ochwepheshe ukuya emsebenzini womphakathi.

Indlela Icala Eliyingqopha - mlando Elithonya Ngayo Umthetho

IZInqumo zeSCOTUS zingaqeda imithetho, zichaze kabusha isimiso esikhona, futhi zivule izinkundla ezintsha zokushaya umthetho. Lapho izinkantolo zikhipha umthetho njengezingavumelani nemithetho, abamisi-mthetho kumelwe babuyele ebhodini eliqophayo, benze izindlela ezintsha ezivumelana nezincazelo zomthetho wemithetho yezimfuneko zomthetho-mthetho.

Ngezinye izikhathi izinqumo eziphawulayo zishukumisela ukumiswa kwemithetho ukuba ihlanganise noma yandise izivikelo zokwahlulela. Ngezinye izikhathi, zikhuthaza izinguquko zomthetho-sisekelo ukuze zigumbuqele noma zilungise izinqumo zenkantolo. Ukusebenza phakathi kwezinqumo zokwahlulela nokusabela kwemithetho kudala isimiso somthetho esinamandla esishintsha ngamagatsha amaningi kahulumeni.

Ithonya Lokuqondisa

Izinhlangano zikahulumeni kumelwe futhi zivumelanise imithetho yazo nezenzo zokugcinwa kwemithetho ukuze zivumelane nezinqumo eziwuphawu. Uma izinkantolo zichaza amalungiselelo angokomthetho noma angokomthetho ngezindlela ezintsha, izinhlangano zokuqondisa zibukeza imithetho yazo, zilungisa izincwadi zazo eziqondisayo, futhi zilungise izinto eziza kuqala. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi ukumiswa kwemithetho ephetheyo kuyavumelana nezincazelo zokwahlulela.

Imikhawulo Yamandla Okwahlulela

Nakuba amacala aphawulekayo ekwazi ukuguqula imingcele ephawulekayo, abhekene nokulinganiselwa okuzuzwe njengefa. Izinkantolo zingamemezela ukuthi umthetho uyini, kodwa zincike kwamanye amagatsha nakubadlali ukuze zifeze izinqumo zazo. Ukumelana, kungaba ngokudelela ngokuqondile noma ngokugwema, kungalinganisela ithonya eliwusizo lesinqumo.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinqumo zokwahlulela azinakuxazulula zonke izici zezinkinga zezemfundo eziyinkimbinkimbi.Brown v. Board of Education inganqabela ukuhlukaniswa kwabantu ngokwehlukana, kodwa ngeke iqede ukuhlukaniswa kwabantu ngokwezezomnotho, noma ubandlululo lwangasese.

Indima Yezinhlangano Zomphakathi

Izenzakalo eziphawula indawo zivame ukuvela ezinhlanganweni zezenhlalo ezibanzi, futhi zinikeza amathuluzi kanye nokukhuthaza ukuqhubekela phambili kwezenzo. Umkhankaso we-NAACP waholela kuBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, eyabe isiqinisa inqubo yamalungelo abantu. Ngokufanayo, izimo ezisungula amalungelo e-LGBTQ, isivikelo sendawo ezungezile, kanye nezinye intuthuko ziveza iminyaka yokuhlela, ukubhalisa, nokushintsha kwempucuko ngalé kwenkantolo.

Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule Nezinkinga Eziqhubekayo

Izinkantolo zanamuhla zibhekene nemibuzo enzima ezoveza amacala aphawulekayo akusasa. Ukufihla imfihlo emishinini edlulayo enkathini yomakhalekhukhwini nezokuxhumana, izinga lamandla okulawula ezimweni eziphuthumayo, ukusebenzisa isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi emongweni omusha, kanye nokulinganisela phakathi kwemithetho yenkululeko engokwenkolo nendluzula emelene nemithetho emelene nokuhlukana okukhona zonke izimpikiswano ezikhona izinkantolo ezilwisana kakhulu nazo.

Ubuchwepheshe Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe buthuthuka, izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi izimiso zomthetho ngokomthetho zisebenza kanjani ekuhloleni inombolo, ekukhulumeni nge-inthanethi, ekusebenziseni i-algorithm, nasekuqoqeni ukwaziswa. Lamacala azohlela amathemba ezindaba zomuntu siqu, ukuveza i-inthanethi mahhala, nemingcele yokugada kukahulumeni amashumi eminyaka ezayo.

Ukushintsha Kwendawo Nesimo Sezulu

Amacala ahlanganisayo adingida ukuthi ohulumeni banesibopho somthetho - sisekelo sokulungisa isimo sezulu, indlela imithetho yendawo ezungezile esebenzelana ngayo namalungelo empahla, nokuthi iziphi izinkantolo okufanele zifeze indima ekuxazululeni ukulimala kwendawo ezungezile. Lezi zinqumo zingayithinta ngokuphawulekayo inqubo yendawo ezungezile kanye nezindlela zokuyilawula.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho: Izinhlelo Ezisebenzayo

Kubantu ngabanye, ukuqonda izigigaba eziphawuliwe kusho ukwazi amalungelo akho ezimweni eziqinile. Uma umiswa amaphoyisa, uMiranda, futhi amacala ahlobene nawo amisa ilungelo lakho lokuthula ucele ummeli. Uma ungenakukwazi ukunikeza ummeli ecaleni lezephulamthetho, uGidioneon uqinisekisa ukuthi umelelwa. Uma ubhekene nokucwaswa emsebenzini, ezindaweni zokuhlala, noma ezindaweni zomphakathi, amacala amalungelo omphakathi anikeza isivikelo esingokomthetho.

Lezi akuzona izimiso ezingekho ngokomthetho, ziwusizo, zithinta ukusebenzelana kwangempela nohulumeni, abaqashi, izikole nezinye izinhlangano. Ukwazi lamalungelo kunika abantu amandla okuwaqinisa uma kudingekile futhi baqaphele ukuthi ukwephulwa kwenzeka nini.

Imicebo Yemfundo

Izinhlangano eziningi zinikeza ukwaziswa okufinyelelweyo ngokuphathelene namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo kanye nezenzakalo zengqophamlando. U.S. webhsayithi yezembutho inikeza imithombo yemfundo ngezimpawu zeNkantolo Ephakeme. American Bar Association inikeza izinto zokufundisa zomphakathi ngesimiso somthetho. Izinhlangano ezinjenge [[FLT:]] CentIN Liberibesties Union[[ inikeza iziyalezo zakho ezifaneleyo ngezikhathi ezihlukahlukene.

Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Okuqhubekayo Komthetho - sisekelo

Umthetho womthetho awusebenzi. Isizukulwane ngasinye sabahluleli siletha imibono emisha emibuzweni yakudala, futhi izimo ezintsha zidinga izimiso ezintsha ezihlala njalo. Amacala aphawula amazwe kusukela emashumini eminyaka adlule ayaqhubeka athonya izinqumo zamanje, kuyilapho imibuso yanamuhla iyoguqula ukucabanga okungokomthetho iminyaka eminingi ezayo.

Ukuqamba kweNkantolo Ephakeme kushintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi njengoba amongameli bemisa amajaji amasha, okungashintsha ukulinganisela kwemibono yeNkantolo nendlela yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kushintsha kungaholela ekugumbuqelweni kwezandulela, ukwamukela izimiso ezintsha zezimfundiso, noma ukwanda noma ukuhlanganiswa kwezivikelo zomthetho-mthetho.

Indlela Yokuhumusha Ephikiswayo

Abahluleli basebenzisa izindlela ezihlukene zokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo, kusukela ekuthatheni i-productal (ibhekisele ekuqondeni komthetho-sisekelo wokuqala) kuya ekuphileni umthetho-sisekelo (ibheka uMthetho-sisekelo njengovumelana nezimo ezishintshayo). Lezizindlela eziphikisanayo ziholela emiphumeleni ehlukene ezimweni ezihilela amalungiselelo afanayo omthetho-sisekelo, kanye nokulingana phakathi kwalamafilosofi ayizici eziba izimpawu naziphi izimiso ezizimisayo.

Ukuhlanganyela Nokushintsha Okungokomthetho

Nakuba izinkantolo zinendima ebalulekile ekuchazeni umthetho, izakhamuzi, izishaya - mthetho, nabasekeli bazo bonke banengxenye ekuziphendukeleni ngokomthetho.

Amabhokisi aphawula indawo avame ukuqala ngabantu abavamile abenqaba ukwamukela ukungabi nabulungisa, [1] Rosa Parks enqaba ukuyeka ibhasi lakhe, uClarence Earl Gideon ebhala isicelo esejele, u-Over Brown ebekela inselele isabelo sesikole sendodakazi yakhe. Lezizenzo zesibindi, zihlangene nokuzihambela kahle kwezenhlalakahle, zakha izimo zoshintsho olungokomthetho.

Ukubheka Phambili: Ikusasa Lamacala Ayimigebe

Izihloko ezizochaza izenzakalo zengqophamlando zakusasa ziyavela namuhla. Imibuzo ephathelene nokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa nobandlululo lwemithetho, izinga lokukhuluma ngokukhululekile ezitejini zomphakathi, ukulinganisela phakathi kwenhlala- kahle yesizwe nemfihlo, amalungelo ezizukulwane ezizayo ngokuphathelene nesivikelo sendawo ezungezile, kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezimisweni emisha yomkhaya nezobuchwepheshe bokuzala zonke izihloko ezingase zenzeke ezinqunyiwe esikhathini esizayo.

Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, izinkantolo zizoqhubeka zichaza amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo ngokubheka izimo ezintsha, ubuchwepheshe, nokuqonda. Ezinye izinqumo ziyokwandisa amalungelo nesivikelo, kuyilapho ezinye zingawanciphisa. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwezinkantolo, izishaya - mthetho nomphakathi iyohlela indlela izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo ezisebenza ngayo ezinkingeni ezivelayo.

Isiphetho: Umphumela Ohlala Njalo Wezinqumo Zokwahlulela

Amacala aphawulayo abonisa ithonya elikhulu izinqumo zokwahlulela ezingaba nalo emphakathini.

Ukuqonda lamacala nemiphumela yawo kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde indlela isimiso somthetho esisebenza ngayo, ziqaphele amalungelo nemithwalo yemfanelo, futhi zihlanganyele ngokuphumelelayo ekubuseni kwentando yeningi.

Indaba yezehlakalo ezivelele ekugcineni iyindaba echaza futhi ivikele amalungelo, ukuncintisana kwezithakazelo, nokuvumelanisa izimiso ezihlala njalo nezimo ezishintshayo. Indaba eqhubeka iveza isimo ngasinye esisha, incazelo entsha, nokuqonda kwesizukulwane ngasinye okusha ngalokho okufunwa ubulungisa. Ngokuhlanganyela kulenqubo eqhubekayo ```ngokufunda, ukukhuliswa kwesizwe,' noma ukumane nje ufundelwe ukuba isakhamuzi ("indidividel") inengxenye ekudalweni komthetho nokuphishekela umphakathi onobulungisa.