Ukuqonda Ingozi Embaxa - mbili: Umvikeli Oyisisekelo

Isimiso sezingozi eziphindwe kabili siyisisekelo sezimiso zobulungisa zobugebengu, esiklanyelwe ukuvimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni amandla awo amakhulu ukuba abeke umuntu ngaphansi kokuziphatha okufanayo. Sibekwe esiGuqulweni Sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States futhi siqashelwa ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene ezihlukene emhlabeni wonke, amakhambi aphindwe kabili amacala abamangalelwa ekuhlukunyezweni, izindleko, kanye nokulimala okungokomzwelo kokulingwa okuphindwe kaningi ngenxa yesenzo esifanayo esishiwo ukuthi sobubi. Emzamweni sayo, lemfundiso iveza ukuthi umuntu ukhululiwe noma walahlwa icala elithile, ezimweni ezithile, uma kuqhubekelwa igwetshwa ngendlela ephinda inqubo efanayo.

Lesivikelo sifeza izinjongo eziningi. Sigcina izinqumo ezicatshangelwe ngokuphambana kobugebengu, siqinisekisa ukuthi amacala agcina ephelile. Kuvimbela ukumangalelwa ukuba "kulume okwesibili e-apula" ngemva kwesinqumo esingathandeki, esingase sibangele ukushiseka noma ukujeziswa. Kuphinde kuhloselwe ukuthi amajaji noma ibhentshi ahlulelwe futhi kuvikelwe ukuba ajeziswa kaningi ngesenzo esisodwa. Nokho, umthetho obonakala ucacile uba yinkimbinkimbi kakhulu lapho abashushicileli bemangalela amaphutha amaningi esenzeka kwesinye isenzakalo. Umbuzo obucayi uwukuthi: kuliphi iphuzu eliphikisanayo elinqamula umugqa ohlangothini ongase ungene?

Umehluko: Umehluko ofanayo nowama-corene. Ukukhokha okuhlukene

Isihluthulelo sokuthola izingozi ezimbili sisekuqondeni ukuthi iliphi icala "lokufana" iNkantolo Ephakeme ku- stamburger v. United States [1932]) yamisa ukuhlolwa okuvamile: amacala amabili awafani uma ngalinye lidinga ubufakazi beqiniso lokuthi elinye alibufuni. Ngaphansi kwalokhu "izinto ezifanayo" uvivinyo, ngisho noma iziphakamiso ezimbili zivela eqekelweni elifanayo lamaqiniso, uma nje icala ngalinye liqukethe isici esihlukile esingadingwanga sinye, ukumangalelwa okukhethekile noma izijeziso eziningi akwenzeki kabili.

Ngokwesibonelo, cabangela umshayeli odakiwe obangela ukushayisana okubulalayo. Umshayeli angabhekana namacala ngaphansi kwethonya (DULT]), engakwazi ukushayela [[[[FLT:]], [[FLT], [[FLT]], [[FLT]] umshayeli], [[[[FLT]], [ukwenza] umshayeli angakwazi ukuboniswa intukuthelo]. [U-ARDUI] udinga ubufakazi bokuthi igazi lomshayeli ligcwele utshwala lingaphezu kwesilinganiso esingokomthetho [[[FLTLT:5] [isi] [i], futhi [[FLT] [[FLT] [6] udinga ubufakazi obungasho ukuthi ukuphaza okungajwayelekile, noma ukuphamba okungukusho ubuqili, futhi okungakhomba okungukusho ukuthi ubuqili kulokhu kuyingozi kakhulu.

Isimo Esifanayo, Izici Ezihlukene

Ukuhlolwa komdwebo kusetshenziswa e-partir-parence, hhayi ekuziphatheni okungaphansi. Ngakho, isibhakela esisodwa esiphonswe phakathi nempi yebhange singasekela ukumangalelwa [ ukuhlasela okulula [, [[FLT]], [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] [[FLT]] [i], [i] ababhithiza [i], ukuziphatha okungahlelekile [FLT], [[FLT] futhi [inani] [inani], kanye nezingakhithi ezihlukene.'izinto ezibonisa ukuthi ezinye izinto azikhombi, njengoba zidinga ukuqulwa kwazo zonke, kungoko okungamele ukuqulwa kanye nokuqulwa okungakho konke okuhambisana kanye nokuvinjiwe kanye nokuvinyelelwa.] uma kuvumelana okuvumelana.

Ukucasuka Okufanayo, Izigqebhezana Ezihlukile

Izinkinga ziphakama lapho uhulumeni ezama ukuhlukanisa lokho okufanayo ngokuyisisekelo kube icala eliphindaphindiwe ngokuncenga. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ebe into eyodwa esitolo, eyimangalela ngazo zombili umalalelisi[ kanye [FLT] nokuthatha icala elingekho emthethweni [[FLT:] ngokuthatha izikhombo eziningi uma zombili izimiso zimboza ukuziphatha okufanayo futhi zidinga izakhi ezifanayo ngokunokwenzeka ziyophula izingozi ezimbili. Izinkantolo zihlola izincazelo ze-staltic chaza incazelo nenhloso yemithetho yokuhlela ukuthi ingabe lezi zizindlela zimane ziwuhlobo ezibomvu. Uma zikhona, izinkolelo eziningi noma ukushunyaniswa okulandelanayo.

Impikiswano ehlobene nayo ingu- ongeke wahlanganisa amacala. Okungahlanganisiwe ukucaphuka yilelo elinezici ezifakwe ngokuphelele ngaphakathi komthetho omkhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, ukubulala kweyesibili icala elingaphansi kwecala lokubulala lokuqala elihlanganisiwe (ngoba ukubulala kokuqala kwe-degree kudinga ukuhlelwa kusengaphambili, kuyilapho okwesibili kwe-degree kudinga ukulahlwa, kuyilapho i-megreee yesibini ingakhokhiswa ngokuphindwe kabili, ummangalelwa akanakubekwa icala eliboshelwa kokubili elikhulu nencane elihlanganisiwe ngesenzo esifanayo. Nokho, ukuqulwa kungaveza ukumangalelwa kokubili komthetho njengemibono ehlukile, futhi abahluleli bangalahlwa kuphela uma bethola ipropati ephiwe.

Izigaba Neminyango Ehlanganisa Lemfundiso

Nakuba ukuhlolwa kunikeza uhlaka, izimpawu eziningana eziqashelwayo zivumela ummangalelwa ukuba abhekane nokuqulwa kwecala noma izijeziso eziningi ngenxa yokuziphatha okunye okucashile. Ukuqonda lokhu kubaluleke kakhulu kokubili okwenziweni kwezeluleko zokuvikela nabashushisi.

Imfundiso Yobukhosi Obubodwa

Enye yezihluke kakhulu yimfundiso yobukhosi ekhethekile [imfundiso yobukhosi] ekhethekile , ephethe leyo mibuso ehlukene (njengezwe nohulumeni, noma amazwe amabili ahlukene) ingamangalela umuntu ngesenzo esifanayo ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Icebo liwukuthi umbusi ngamunye unemithetho yakhe siqu nezithakazelo zokuvikela. Ngokwesibonelo, izikhulu ezihileleke ekubhavulweni kweNkosi uRodney zakhululwa ezimangalweni zikahulumeni kodwa kamuva zalahlwa enkantolo yelungelo lomphakathi lokwephula amalungelo ombango. Ngokufanayo, umuntu ophuca ibhange ngecala ngenxa yokuphanga nokuphanga ibhange, ngisho noma ukuziphatha kukahulumeni kufana. Abagxeki benqaba kakhulu, kodwa bahlala bebonke.

Ubufakazi Obusha Nezinsolo Ezazazingatholakali Ngaphambili

Ingozi ephindwe kabili ayivele ivale ubugebengu obuhlukile obulandelana lapho kuvela ubufakazi obusha ngemva kokuvinjelwa kokuqala, uma icala elisha lingatholakali ngesikhathi sokuqulwa komthetho wokuqala. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa ekhululiwe ekhululiwe ekuhlaselweni kodwa kamuva ubufakazi bembula ukuthi isisulu safa ngenxa yokulimala okwasekelwa phakathi nokuhlasela, umshushisi angase alethe umuntu ukubulala. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi icala elisha kumelwe libe ubugebengu obuhlukile (kungekhona ukubekwa kabusha kwalezi zici). Nokho, uma ubufakazi obusha bumane buqinisa icala lokumangalelwa kwasekuqaleni, ukuqulwa futhi kuvinjelwe.

Ama - quary Angewona Awawafanele Ne - Hung Julles

Ijaji elinamacala angalungile noma ijaji elilengisweyo alivuli ukuvikelwa kabili kwezimo eziningi. Uma abahluleli bengenakukwazi ukufinyelela isahlulelo, umahluleli umemezela isigwebo esingalungile, futhi icala lingase liphinde lilungiswe. Isizathu siwukuthi ummangalelwa akakaqalwa "ethandwe noma akhululwe'ecala'." Ngokufanayo, uma ukuqulwa kwecala kunikezwa izingozi ezimbili okudingwa kakhulu [ [njengejaji elilahliwe, isigwebo esingafaneleki, noma ukugula), ummangalelwa angase aqale. Nokho, uma ukumangalela noma uma ukwahlulela kubangela ukuba isigwebo sikhansele ummangalelwa noma inzuzo eyiphutha, ukuqulwa okulandelayo kungavinjelwa okulandelayo kungavithiwe.

Isigebengu siyaqhubeka

Ingozi ephindwe kabili iyasebenza kuphela emacaleni obugebengu. Umuntu angamangalelwa ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yengozi ebangelwa yisenzakalo esifanayo esaphumela ekumangalelweni kwecala, futhi ukumangalelwa kwecala lomphakathi akukona okungaphucuzeki izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Ngokwesibonelo, uSimpson wakhululwa ekubulaleni kodwa kamuva watholakala enecala lokufa ngokungafanele ekuqulweni kwecala lomphakathi. Umehluko ukhona ekutholeni isijeziso sobugebengu: isijeziso sobugebengu ngokuhambisana nenkokhelo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, isijeziso somphakathi.

Imfundiso Ehlangene Nezimangalo Eziningi

Uma ummangalelwa eboshelwa icala eliningi ngenxa yalokho okuyisinyathelo esisodwa sobugebengu, izinkantolo zingasebenzisa imfundiso ye- yokubukisa ukuze alahle izinkolelo ezingaphansi noma aziqinise. Ngokwesibonelo, uma ummangalelwa elahlwa icala lokubulala kokubili nokubulala okungakhokhwayo (umk., ukuphanga), ukubulala okungathandeki okuxubene necala elingaphansi kwecala, futhi ummangalelwa ngeke ajeziswe ngakho kokubili. Ngokufanayo, uma amafayili omshushisi [FLT]] [FLT]] [3] [mthelela] ukukhomba icala elingaphezulu ngenxa yecala elifanayo, inkantolo ingalahla ukukhohlakazeka okuphindiwe kabili.

Imisebenzi Ewusizo Yabaqondisi

Kubameli abavikelayo, izingozi eziphindwe kabili yithuluzi elinamandla elingaphakanyiswa ngezigaba ezihlukahlukene. Ukuhamba ususe ngokusekelwe engozini ephindwe kabili ngaphambi kokuqulwa kwecala kungavimbela ukumangalelwa kwesibili ngemva komphumela olungile. Uma kubhekiswe emacaleni amaningi, iseluleko sokuvikela kufanele sihlaziye ngokucophelela ukuthi iliphi lalamacala alicala elifanayo ngempela ngaphansi i-unter noma ukuthi bambalwa abangeniswa namacala. Uma ikhasi selivivinjelwe eqe ukuthi likhona kakade, iseluleko kufanele sihlole ukuthi ingabe iliphi ngempela icala elihlangene nemfundiso yobukhosi noma ukuqulwa uhulumeni liyasebenza yini.

Kubashushisi, ukuqonda imingcele yomonakalo ophindwe kabili kubalulekile ngokulingana. Ngokuhlukanisa isenzo esisodwa sobugebengu sibe izilinganiso eziningi eziguquguqukayo kungaholela ekuxoshweni noma ekushicilelweni. Ngokuphambene, ukusetshenziswa okufanelekile kwemfundiso yobukhosi obubili kuvumela ukuvinjelwa okuhlangene kwecala likahulumeni ezimweni eziphakeme lapho uhulumeni engase akhiphe isenzo sikahulumeni (oveze uhulumeni wezwe unegunya elizimele).

Izibonelo Eziwusizo

Cabangela indaba lapho umshayeli eshaya umuntu ohamba ngezinyawo, abese ebaleka khona. Umshayeli angabhekana nokumangalelwa nokuncintisana [ukususa indawo], ngokunganaki ukushayela [[[ (ukusebenza okuyingozi kwemoto, [[FLT:]]]] nokulimala komzimba []. Ngamunye udinga ubufakazi bezakhi ezithile, ukuze zonke ezintathu zilethwe. Kodwa uma kamuva umuntu ohamba ngezinyawo eshona, izikhalo zinganyukela ukubulalana [[FLT]] [vFLD]]]. Umbuzo ube ungaba ukubulala okukhulu. Uma ukubulalana kuhlangene ukubulala.

Esinye isimo: ummangalelwa ukhululiwe ekuphangeni ngezikhali kodwa kamuva uvuma icala elifanayo kumphakathi wezokuxhumana. Nakuba lelo qiniso elisha lingasetshenziswa ekulungiseni ukuphanga ngezikhali, uhulumeni angase azame ukumangalela ummangalelwa ngempahla eyebiwe [ uma impahla kamuva itholakala. Uma ishendezo lidinga ubufakazi bokuthi ummangalelwa wazi ukuthi impahla yabelwe (isici esingadingeki ukuba iphangiswe), ukumangalelwa kwesibili kungasinda enseleni yokuzibeka engozini.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke Ngemiqondo Embaxa - mbili

Nakuba indlela ye-U.S. yaziwa kahle, ezinye izimiso eziningi zomthetho zinezinguquko zazo eziphindwe kabili. EUnited Kingdom, isimiso saziwa ngokuthi u-autrefois Conrect ne iziboshwa iziboshwa [ [izecala] [izesikhathi esidlule] [izecala eliqinile]]] [ukuthi ukukhohliswa nokuqiniseka kwangaphambili]. Ngokomlando, umthetho wesiNgisi waziwa ngokuthi [i-fltreverseright direct, kodwa ngo-95] Justice `Umthetho owe-Crist [[FLT]] waveza uMthetho ongathi sína [ukubulala, ukudlwengulamba, ukuhlasela] lapho kuvela nobufakazi obusha"kudluliswa futhi kudluliswa iNka iNkalelo lemiyalelo.

I-Canada [[QT:0] inikeza isivikelo sengozi kabili ngaphansi kwe-FLT 11(h), evimbela umuntu ukuba aphinde ahlolwe ngemva kokunxelwa noma ukuvunyelwa. Izinkantolo zaseCanada ziye zasebenzisa "icala elifanayo" elivivinyelwe i-imheader[[FLT:] , nakuba imfundiso embaxa-mbili yobukhosi ingasebenzi ngenxa yokuthi i-Canada yombuso nezifunda zayo azithathwa njengezikhulu ezihlukene ngalenjongo. Kunalokho, [[FLT:] KIquapple [[FL:] Isimiso] esivimbela izinkolelo eziningi zedethiyo efanayo (iqiniso eliyi-colic).

Izwe eliyilungu le-European Union, ngemithetho elandelwayo nangomthetho wecala ovela eNkantolo yoMahlulelo e-European Union, lazi amabhuleki ahlukene kuyi-intem isimiso (ngesiLatini esisho "kuphindwe kabili kwenye""). Lesi simiso sibophela icala lesibili kwelinye izwe le-EU ngemva kokwahlulela kokugcina. Lesivikelo samazwe ngamazwe sidlulela ngalé kwe-U.S. ukuhlukana kobukhosi obumbaxababili, okumelela ngisho nesivikelo esikhulu kubantu abahamba phakathi kwamalungu.

Izifundo Ezitholakala EMthethweni Oqhathanisayo

Izindlela ezihlukahlukene zamazwe ngamazwe ziqokomisa ukungezwani phakathi kokukhipha ubukhosi obubodwa nobulungisa. I-U.S. kungokuqhathaniswa futhi ngokuvamile kugxekwa ngokuvumela ohulumeni ukuba bagweme izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Ukungavumelani okulinganiselwe kobufakazi obusha kubonisa ukukhula komphakathi ngenxa yokungaqiniseki okungalungile ngokulahlwa kwecala eliphakeme lecala. Okwamanje, amabhunusi e-EU e-intene e-intellime[ agcizelela isidingo sokungaguquguquki endaweni egcwele i-jurion. Abasebenzi abasemthethweni abasebenza ngaphesheya kwemingcele kumelwe bazi ukuthi lokhu kuphikisana, ikakhulukazi lapho abakhambi bejeziswa kwelinye izwe.

Ukuhlaziya Okubucayi Nezimpikiswano

Isimiso sokufa kabili asinazo izimpikiswano. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlolwa kwe-stiumburger kungokomshini futhi kungavumela izijeziso eziningi ezijezisa ngokuphumelelayo ukuziphatha okufanayo kaningi. Isenzo esisodwa sokushushumbisa izidakamizwa singaholela ekumangaleleni, ukukhokha ngenhloso yokwaba, ukushushumbisa, nozungu, ngalunye olungadlula ukuhlolwa okufanayo kodwa luphumele eqenjini elibonakala lingenamthethweni eliyiphutha.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlukana kobubusi okubili kuyindida elulaza ukuvikelwa komthetho-mthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme muva nje iphinde iqinisekise le mfundiso ku- Ggaggy v. United States (2029]), kodwa isinqumo saphuka, futhi sifuna ukuba iqedwe. IJaji Ginsburg, ephikisayo, iphikisa ukuthi imfundiso "ithoba izindinganiso" ye-Doopty Reopty Clauslee.

Enye indawo yengxoxo ikhathazekile [[FLT: 0] iNkantolo eqa igebelele ezicaleni zobugebengu. Ashe v. i-Sunson [1970], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi uma indaba yeqiniso lokugcina inqunywe ngesinqumo esisemthethweni nesokugcina, leyompikiswano ayinakuphinde ibekwe phakathi kwamaqembu anye enkantolo esikhathini esizayo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi uma ijaji eliphula icala lokuphanga umba ngenxa yokuthi lathola ukuthi ummangalelwa akakho esigcabeni, inkantolo kamuva ayinakuzama ummangalelwa osekelwe ekuhlolweni okusekelwe ekufakaneni okufanayo okubonisa ukuthi iphuzu elikhona. Colpalse isebenza ngisho nasesolweni lesibili lapho icala linqunywe ngokunqunywana.[5]

Indima Yobandlululo Nokuhlukunyezwa

Ngisho noma amaphutha emishini angawavaleli umshushisi, izinkantolo ziyakwazi ukuwalahla amacala uma ukuziphatha kukahulumeni kunesici noma kukhathaza. Imizamo ephindaphindwayo yokuletha icala elifanayo ngemva kokulahlwa, ngisho nangaphansi kwegama elihlukile, ingaxoshwa umahluleli wecala ukuze avikele amalungelo afanele ommangalelwa. Ikhambi alikho njalo elizifaka engozini eziphindwe kabili kodwa igunya elikhulu lenkantolo lokuvimbela ukuxhashazwa kwenqubo yobugebengu.

Isiphetho: Ukuziphendukela Kwengozi Okukabili Okuqhubekayo

Ingozi ephindwe kabili ihlala iyindawo elawulayo yomthetho, ilinganisa isimiso esiyisisekelo sokugcina isithakazelo somphakathi ekubekeni isibopho sokulandisa ngabantu ngezenzo zobugebengu. Nakuba umthetho ucacile, akukho muntu ozobekwa engozini ngenxa yecala elifanayo, kodwa ngaphandle kobufakazi obuphindiwe, ukuqulwa kwecala, ukuqulwa okusha, nokuqulwa komphakathi kudala ubunzima obuphawulekayo. ukulinganisa okuphelele komthetho [[FLT:]] iburger [[FLT]] [[FLT]] isebenza njengethuluzi eliyinhloko lokuhlola, kodwa ngaphandle kwendlela yokulawula okukodwa, ukuqulwa okusha, ukuqulwa okungamanga, nokuhlazi komthetho okungabalulekile.

Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uvikela ikhasimende elimangalelwa ngokuqashelwa kaningi ngemva kwesenzakalo esisodwa noma ukuqulisa icala elithatha imingcele ehlukene, imibuzo ephakanyiswa yisidingo esiphindwe kabili sengozi, ukuhlaziywa okucacile. Njengoba izinkantolo ziqhubeka zicwengisisa lemfundiso (ngokukhethekile) emongweni wobuzwe, zivela ubufakazi obungokwezentengiselwano, kanye nokubambisana kwezizwe ngezizwe ("ukulandelana kwezenzakalo) kubucayi. Isimiso singaba sidala, kodwa ukusebenza kwaso kuhlala kusekhona.

[[[UMTL:0] Ukuze uqhubeke ufunda, cabangela lemithombo elandelayo:[[Umthetho:1]

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  • [[IQUMT:0] Umqondo wenkantolo e Ggush v. United States (2029) real Seamora [[]
  • UK Criminal Justice Act 2003 (bheka Ingxenye 10 yecala)
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