ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singenye yezincwadi eziwumphumela ezingokomthetho eziwumphumela omkhulu emlandweni waseMelika. Saqiniswa ngo-1868, ngemva kweMpi Yombango, saklanyelwa ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ababesanda kukhululeka futhi ngokuyisisekelo alungise ubuhlobo phakathi kukahulumeni nombuso. Phakathi neminyaka engu - 150 edlule, amalungiselelo ayo aye ayisisekelo sezinqumo zeNkantolo evelele elwela amalungelo abantu, inqubo efanelekile, nesivikelo esilinganayo. Ukuqonda amaqiniso ayisisekelo ngalokhu kukhululwa kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqaphela ubudlelwane obungokomthetho obuvikela amalungelo abantu namuhla.

Umlando Nokuqoshwa Kwawo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo sasingesinye sezimiso ezintathu zokulungisa iSichibiyelo ezamukelwa phakathi kuka-1865 no-1870. ISichibiyelo seshumi elinesihlanu saqeda ubugqila; iSichibiyelo seshumi nanhlanu sanqabela ukucwasana ngokusekelwe emdlalweni. ISichibiyeli seshumi nane seSichibiyeli sathi sihlala phakathi kwabo njengengxenye yokwakha, sichaza isimilo sobuzwe nemithetho kahulumeni ephakeme. Ngemva kwemithetho kaMongameli u-Andrence Johnson yokulungisa izivumelwano ngokuyekelelayo yavumela amazwe ase-South ukuba adlulise "Imithetho Engasese" eyayiwavimbela kakhulu amalungelo abantu base-Afrika, i-Congresstion-Prence-Prence-Demoney Republican" yabekwa ngu-adershivement awercement ahment awercements [indements] i-astrument arrustments] yokulahla imithetho kahulumeni futhi abeke isithembiso sokulunga esisemthethweni.

Idluliswa yisinqumo soMkhandlu ngoJune 13, 1866, futhi yagunyazwa ngoJuly 9, 1868, inguquko yasusa ukubusa kweNkantolo Ephakeme Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857], eyayithi abantu bomsuka waseAfrika abasoze babe izakhamuzi zase-U.S. i-U.A. i-galelo lokuqala lalenqaba ngokuqondile ukuthi ukubusa ngokuthi bonke abantu abazelwe noma abadaliweyo eUnited States bayizakhamuzi zesizwe nezwe abahlala kulo.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko ESichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sakhiwa izingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa iSigaba 1 siqukethe ulimi olunamandla kakhulu noluvame ukuhlatshwa ngolimi. Ukuqonda la magama kubucayi.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Ingxenye 1 iqala ngokuthi: "Bonke abantu abazalwe noma abazalwa ngemvelo e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya layo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseHulumeni lapho behlala khona." Lesi sigqebhezana samisa ubuzibulo − isimiso esisalokhu siyindaba yempikiswano engokomthetho nengokwezombangazwe namuhla. Siqinisekisa ukuthi noma yimuphi umntwana ozalwe eU.S. (ngokushiyeka, njengabantwana bobumeli bamanye amazwe) uba yindawo yesizwe ngokuzenzekelayo.S. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi abazali bangena ezweni. Isimiso sasiyimpendulo eqondile ku- [ Scott futhi sisekela umqondo wokuthi ukuba izakhamuzi iyindawo yomthetho kazwe, hhayi i-gedume.

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

Ingxenye efanayo iyaqhubeka: "... futhi noma yimuphi uMbuso ngeke unciphe noma yimuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Lomusho usebenza isiqinisekiso esifanayo sokuthi isiMithelela sesihlanu siphoqelela uhulumeni kahulumeni wezwe. Inqubo inezilinganiso ezimbili: [ inqubo efanele[[[FLT:]] iqinisekisa amalungelo athile abalulekile kuhulumeni, ngisho noma izinqubo zilungile. Ngenqubo ehloniphekile, ukuzwa, umahluleli, ukungakhethi, inkantolo ephakeme ithatha ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla; [ inqubo efanelekile efanelekile ivikela amalungelo athile abalulekile ekungeneni, ngisho noma izinqubo yokusebenza. Inqubo ehloniphekile, iNkakhulu yeNkakhulu iyaziwa ngelungelo lomthetho womshado, futhi i-Calsuptionssionsiontion, i-Foctive i-Foctiveright:[5] ye-Foctivessionation: "Fod]

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

Ingxenye 1 iyayala futhi: "Kungekhona okuphikayo kunoma ubani ophakathi kwegunya lakhe ukuvikelwa okufanayo kwemithetho." Lemisho elula iye yaba yithuluzi eliyinhloko lokubekela imithetho yobandlululo inselele. I-Unimeal Protection Clause ifuna ukuba uhulumeni abaphathe ngendlela efanayo abantu abasendaweni efanayo. Incazelo yayo iye yasuswa phakathi kwamashumi eminyaka omthetho, ukumisa izitembu zokwahlulela. Imithetho eminingi ibukezwa ngaphansi kwesisekelo esinengqondo sokuhlola i-(isisekelo), ibhekwa njengenqophendla uma inemfanelo efanelekile kahulumeni. Kodwa imithetho ehlukanisayo esekelwe embangweni esemthethweni engokohlanga, umsuka wesizwe, noma inkolo ibangela ukucubukiswa okuqinile, futhi cishe ihlahlelwa phansi njalo ngaphandle kokuba ifeza isithakazelo esiqinile futhi inciphene. [4] [4] [4]

Amalungelo Noma UClaus

I-Sandwiwing phakathi kwe-Citity ye-Clausce ne-Act Process Claus isho lamazwi: "Awukho uHulumeni ozokwenza noma ukuphoqelela noma yimuphi umthetho ozovimbela amalungelo noma ukugoma kwezakhamuzi zase-United States." Lombhalo wawuhloselwe ukuvikela amalungelo esizwe ayisisekelo ekuphinisweni yisizwe. Nokho, iSikakhulu seNkantolo esiphezulu singo1873 [iNkakhulu:0] Ukuchashaza iCases [Indlu [[ ifunda le-gamende ngokuncane kakhulu, iphethe ukuthi ivikela amalungelo "emfanelo yesizwe" kuphela enziwa yilungelo lokuya esihlalweni sikahulumeni noma ukufinyelela izinkantolo zombuso). Isinqumo sathi ngokuyisisekelo sikhiphe i-Gacenset-a yelungelo lamalungelo ekhulu leminyaka. Abanye basekela i-struption, kodwa basekela amalungelo aso sonke esibekwe ngokuvikela ngenxa yelungelo esingokomthetho sokuvikelwa yi-Cla i-Clatsha.

Amalungelo Angokomthetho Avikelwa ISichibiyelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asiwahleli amalungelo akhethekile ngendlela iBhili of Rights eliwabeka ngayo, kunalokho, limisa izimiso ezibanzi izinkantolo eziye zazisebenzisa ukuze zivikele inkululeko ehlukahlukene. Ngezansi amanye amalungelo ayinhloko aye aqashelwa ngaphansi kokulungisa.

Ilungelo Lokuba Izakhamuzi Nesizwe

Isizwe esizalwa ngokusemthethweni ngaphansi kwe-Citizen centrensity Clause isho ukuthi wonke umuntu ozalwe e-United States (futhi engaphansi kwegunya lakhe) uyisakhamuzi. Lelilungelo alinakuthathwa yiKhongolo noma izifundazwe ngaphandle kwezindlela ezimngcingo ezibekwe engxenyeni 1. INkantolo Ephakeme yakuqinisekisa lokhu [ku-United States] United States v. Wong Kim Ark[[[FLL:1] [1898], iphethe ukuthi umntwana ozalelwe abazali baseChina abafuduki wayeyi-U.S. isakhamuzi, ngisho noma umthetho kahulumeni ukhona ngesikhathi esivinjelwe abantu baseShayina ekuzini. Lomthetho uhlala ulungile futhi uyisisekelo sempikiswano yamanje ngokuphathelenendawo yobuzibulo yabantwana abafudukile.

Isivikelo Emithethweni Ekhipha Ubandlululo

Isivikelo esilinganayo u-Claus siyisiphephelo esiyinhloko ekukhetheni uhulumeni. Siye sasetshenziswa ekubekeni izinselele zemithetho ehlukanisa abantu ngokwezinhlanga, ubuzwe, ubulili, indlela yobulili, nezinye izimo. Ngokwesibonelo, Obergefell v. Hoddem [[FLT:] [200]] [20], iNkantolo yavumela ukuvalwa kwemizwa yezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundo eqinile, kuyilapho izinqumo ezifana ne-FT [FT]: Actreastes neSikhuseli Esilinganayo. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT:]] [2] Graitem v. Bollinger[FLT] [2003] ivumela ukuvalwa kwezemfundo ephakeme, kuyilapho kamuva kuvikelwa izinqulwe zeze izinqumo eziqinile.[Foctives]

Ilungelo Lokuqhubeka Ngokusemthethweni

Inqubo efanelekile engokwenqubo efanelekile idinga ukuba ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni ususe amalungelo omuntu, lowomuntu kumelwe amukele isaziso nethuba lokuzwakala ngendlela enengqondo. Lokhu kusebenza ekuqulweni kwecala, ukulahlekelwa yizenzo zomphakathi, ukuqedwa kwamalungelo abazali, ukususwa kwecala, nezinye izenzo zikahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela okusungulwe ku-Mathews v. Eldidge [16] [16] ukunquma ukuthi iziphi izinqubo ezidingekayo ngokomthetho: isithakazelo sangasese, ingozi yokuncishwa kwezimiso zamanje, izingozi zokungatshazwa okungatshazwa okunga kahle ngaphansi kwezimiso zamanje, kanye nenzalo yohulumeni ngokunenzuzo.

Ukumiswa Kwezincwadi Zamalungelo Abantu

NgeSichibiyelo se-Gast Process Claus, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo seMikhathi Yamalungelo siye senza ukuba iSiphakamiso sagunyazwa ngokushesha ezifundazweni. Lenqubo, ebizwa ngokuthi ikhetha ukuhlanganiswa kwezikhali , yaqala ngobuqotho ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka. Inkululeko yokuzikhulula yokuqala yokukhuluma, inyathelise, ihlanganisa, ingqungquthela, kanye nenkolo yafakwa ngokushesha. Amanye amalungelo afakwa ngokushesha. Namuhla, cishe wonke amalungelo e-Bill Recodecly of Rights asebenza ezigabeni ezimbalwa kuphela ([FLT:]]McD [[FLDonald v.[FLT]], 2010]) kanye nelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lezehlulelo lomthetho wesizwe ezinkantolo zezindawo ezinkulu zezindawo zomphakathi, futhi isilinganiso esiphansi kwezehlulelwayo.

Amalungelo Ayisisekelo Nenqubo Elindelekile

Inqubo efanelekile evimbelayo ivikela amalungelo athile asekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni nasesikweni salesi sizwe" ngisho noma engachazwanga eMthethweni. Lawa ahlanganisa ilungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana, ilungelo lokukhulisa izingane njengoba umuntu ebona kufanelekile, ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukuvimbela inzalo, ilungelo lokuhlanganyela ebulilini, ilungelo lokuhlanganyela ebulilini, kanye nelungelo lokukhipha isisu (njengoba kusungulwe [[FL:0]]] Roe v. []]] 1973 futhi lilungiswe [[FLT]] imvume yokuvimbela inzalo. [i-Rosekuvikwe] i-mfat , i-Rose i-Rom] futhi inciphe ingu eqinile. [impethene yalempiso yomshado eqinile] [[FLT]] [iv:]] [irrown][2]] [2]] ku-G.[5] Inqunyu yomthetho eqinile] Inguqulumo yomshado iyaqhubeka ngokulandela ukuvikela okunga ngokomthetho okunga kahleyokuhle. [i, i

Ithonya Elungelweni Lomphakathi Nokushintsha Kwezenhlalo

Ngaphandle kwayo, ukunqoba okukhulu kwenhlangano yamalungelo omphakathi, inhlangano yamalungelo abesifazane, kanye nomzabalazo wamalungelo abesifazane, bekungeke kwenzeke.

Ukuqeda Ubandlululo Lwezinhlanga

Pressey v.[Forguson (1996], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuhlukaniswa kohlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso "yokuhlukanisa kodwa elinganayo", iphetha ngokuthi i-Livice Livicee Lilinganayo u-Falaus ayizange yaphulwa nje kuphela. Lesi sinqumo esigunyaziwe uJim Crow kunyaka wonke wama-60. Inkantolo ekugcineni yagumbuqela uPelley [[FLL:2] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[FLT:] (11954], iphethe ukuthi ubandlululo ezikoleni zomphakathi lwalungalingani. ISikhulu u-Earl Warrenren sabhala ukuthi "izikhungoko lwemfundo zilinganayodwa," futhi "unyuklgen ithinta ukuncipha kwezinhliziyo zazo... futhi zingathinta izingqondo zazo ezingathi zinjalo.[Foll][5]

Ukuvikela Amalungelo Okusakaza

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo, sihlangene neSichibiyelo seshumi elinesihlanu, siye sasetshenziselwa ukubekela inselele ukuvota. INkantolo Ephakeme yalahla izintela zokuvota Harper v. Virginia Board of Evotions (666] ngaphansi kweSivikelo se-Mometic Protection Clause, futhi kamuva izenzakalo ezilinganiselwe zezinhlanga ezisekelwe ekhonweni zobuhlanga zokuvota-mfa kanye nezomthetho we-reversi. Nokho, izinqumo zamuva nje Shelby County v. Haker) [1] (206) zalulaza amalungelo omthetho womthetho ka-1966, ezazisekelwe engxenye yamandla ombuso wokugunyaza imithetho ye-Greadethi ye-Greastry. Impi ehlangene esisamelelwe ngokuncito engokomthetho esisele seze emaphakathi.

Ukuvikela Ukulingana Komshado

Ku obergefell v. Hoddegs (2015), iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sidinga izivumelwano zemvume futhi siqaphele imishado efanayo neyobulili. Umbono weningi kaKennedy wawuxhomeke kukho kokubili i-Century Programme Claus (ukuvikela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada) ne-Octal Providuct Claus (ukuveza ukucwaswa kwemibono esekelwe ocaleni). Isinqumo sasiyingqophaza ye-LGBTQ+ amalungelo futhi sabonisa ukuvumelana kokuvumelana kokuqondana kwenkululeko nokulingana.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo se 144 siye saba futhi isiqinisekiso sesivikelo esilinganayo sokulwa nokwenza uvume. Izehlo zeYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke [[FLT] [1988], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi imingcele yobuhlanga yayiyimithetho engakhethi kodwa ukuthi uhlanga lungaba yisici esisodwa ekuvumeleni. [emuva] izenzakalo, kuhlanganise [[FLT:] v. Bollinger [2003] [2003], isekela ngokungenangqondo yemidathamo yohlanga. Nokho, [kusukela ku-FLT:] [FLD] kungenza ukuba abantu abambalwa bangene. [i-FLT] [fdctsctive v.[FFF]] [FF] [25] [2], [2], [isibonelo] ngezenzo eziphambili zomthetho zomkhankathi zeNkathi oluthi oluthi oluphezulu], ezithiyo oluthiyolukusetshenziswayo oluthi lwezeleleyokusetshenziswa

Izincazelo Zanamuhla Nezimpikiswano

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane siseyincwadi ephilayo, nencazelo yaso ilokhu iphikiswa ezinkantolo, ezindlini zezishaya - mthetho, nasezinkulumweni zeningi.

Ukuba isakhamuzi Ngokufanelekile Kungaphansi Kwenselele

Ezinye izazi zezombangazwe kanye nezezezomthetho ziye zabuza ukuthi i-Cintuticshity Claus kufanele yini isebenze kubantwana abafudukayo abangabhalwanga. Baphikisa ngokuthi abantwana abanjalo aba "ngaphansi" kwe-United States ngomqondo ophelele. Nokho, umbono ongokomthetho okhona , osekelwa umbhalo, uWang Kim Ark isibonelo, nemithetho engokomthetho ukuthi ubuzibulo buwumthetho futhi bungashintshwa ngomunye umthetho wemithetho-mgano-mfa. Noma imuphi umzamo wokuchaza kabusha ukuphatha imibango noma umthetho ngokuqinisekile ubhekenenselele.

Inqubo Engaqondakali Ngemva Kwama - dob

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme amaDobbs avule umnyango wokubekela inselele ngokumelene namanye amalungelo enqubo afanele. Eminye imithetho yenkantolo nesinqumo senkantolo kakade sekuye kwangatshazwa ilungelo lokuvimbela inzalo ([Grislold v.Connecticut[[FL:3]6]6] [66]) nokuthi yayingangangangangabazisikhonzi ukuziphatha kobulili kwangasese ([ Lwrence v.[FLT] 2003]. Nakuba [[FLT] Inqubo ye-fult:6] ebaluleke kakhulu] [[FLT]]

Ukuvikelwa Okulinganayo Nokuchazwa Kwabantu Abahlukene Ngezinhlanga

Izinkantolo zisebenzisa ngokuqhubekayo iSiphakamiso Sokuvikela Ukonakalisa u-Claumetic Claus ekutheni ubandlululo olusekelwe ekubukelweni kwenkanuko yobulili nasekuziseni kwabantu. Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi iSihlomo VII se-Civil Rights Act sivimbela ukucwaswa kongqingili kanye nezisebenzi ezidlulisayo. Lecala lalisekelwe ekuchazeni i-stativery, hhayi i-Indementment. Kodwa manje izinkantolo eziphansi zicabangela ukuthi i-antellimementmentmentation system ngokwayo ivimbela imithetho emelene nokucwasa abantu ngabanye, isibonelo kwezemidlalo, izindlu zokugeza, noma ukunakekela kwezokwelapha. Lezinkantolo zingafinyelela iNkakhululuko ephethe futhi zichaze i-mest Countsmest protection of the tration of the trading.

Amalungelo Noma Ukuvuselelwa Kwamalungelo?

Iqembu elincane kodwa elinethonya lezazi zokuqala nabahluleli liphikisa ngokuthi ama-Oults noma ama-Immunion Claus kufanele abuyiselwe njengemoto eyinhloko yokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo. Baveza ukuthi iNdlu yokuhleka [ isinqumo sanqunywa ngokungafanele nokuthi incazelo yokuqala ye-Grititism yayikuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo e-U.S. izakhamuzi ezimelene nombuso owephula amalungelo ayisisekelo. UMahluleli uClarence Thomas uye wasekela ngokuphindaphindiwe lombono ngokushendezela imibono. Nakuba iNkantolo ayikamukelanga indlela yokufinyelela le mfundiso, ukushintshwa kwemfundiso kungaveza imiphumela emikhulu yamalungelo emfucukuthwayo, inkululeko yezomnotho, nezinye izindawo ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezisetshenziswayo. [FL.2:] [FL.P.N.[F.2]

Ukuphoqelelwa Nokukhishwa Kwengxenye 5

Ingxenye 5 yeSichibiyelo se 145 inikeza uKhongolo "igunya lokuphoqelelwa, ngomthetho ofanelekile, amalungiselelo alesi sihloko." Lokhu kunikezwa kwegunya kuye kwasetshenziselwa ukudlulisa imithetho ephawula amalungelo abantu, kuhlanganise noMthetho Wesigebengu wama-Population ka-1965, i-Voiting Rights Act ka-1965, ne-Fair House House Act ka-1968. Nokho, iNkantolo ePhakathi ePhakamileyo iphethe amandla angokomthetho kaKhondlu elinganiselwe. [Fogle] i-Boerne v. Flemur [Foct:1] [1997], iNkathi yeNkathi ye-Religious Convective Religist Reconvectal Reconvectal Act engokomthetho njengomthetho owenziwe ezizweni ze-Empire, ukuvikelwa kwemithelela ekuhlanganyele sobulili kwemithene.

Isiphetho: Ifa Elihlala Njalo LeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane saguqula uMthetho-sisekelo wasusa ubumbano phakathi kwezifundazwe nohulumeni wamazwe waba yincwadi yenkululeko. Ukuba kwawo izakhamuzi kwamisa indinganiso yobuzibulo eyivelakancane phakathi kwamazwe. I-Active Procesme yawo uClaus iye yahlanganisa cishe yonke iBill of Rights ezindaweni futhi ivikelekile inkululeko eyisisekelo abasunguli ababengeke bayicabange. Ukuvikela kwayo u-Claus kuyinkemba nesihlangu sezizukulwane zamaMelika ezilwela ubulungisa nokufakwa kuyo. Futhi amalungelo ayo noma ama-Immunitunio awe, nakuba kukudala emile, angavuka ukuze afeze indima entsha ekuvikeleni amalungelo abantu ngabanye.

Njengoba isizwe siqhubeka siphikisana ngencazelo yokulingana, inkululeko, kanye nesizwe, ngokungangabazeki iSichibiyelo seshumi nane siyohlala esiyinhloko salezozingxoxo. Ukuqonda amaqiniso aso ayisisekelo akuyona nje indlela yokufunda (isikhungo semfundo) kubaluleke kunoma isiphi isakhamuzi esifuna ukuhlanganyela eprojective eqhubekayo yezobushiqela baseMelika. Ukuqhubeka kufundwa kombhalo we-demokrati yentando yeningi. [[FLT:]], bheka [[FLT], futhi iSibone iSibonelo seZibonelo sezenzipho [FLT] esiphethe [FFLT] [4] [5] nomlando wonke]. [FFFFFT]