Amalungelo afanele enqubo akha i-lick lomthetho waseMelika, iqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu uthola ukuphathwa ngokufanele ngaphansi komthetho. Lamalungelo akuwona amasu angabonakali; ayizinto eziwusizo ezivikela inqubo kahulumeni ozimele. Kusukela ekuhlolweni kwezeleleni esikoleni ukulashwa kwezindlebe, inqubo efanelekile iqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni uhlonipha amalungelo angokomthetho abekwe umuntu ngaphambi kokuba aphuce ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Lesiqondiso sinikeza ukuqonda okubanzi kwamalungelo enqubweni efanelekile, ukuhlola imvelaphi yawo engokomlando, izimpawu ezimbili eziyinhloko zezehlakaniphe incazelo yazo, kanye nokusebenza kwawo emphakathini wamanje. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ungumfundi oqedwe yisazi, noma nje isakhamuzi esifuna ukuqonda isivikelo sakho, ukuqaphela inqubo efanelekile yokulungisa inqubo engokomthetho kanye neyo yokulunga.

Iyini Inqubo Efanele?

Inqubo elindelekile isiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe alandele izinqubo zomthetho ezilungile nezimisiwe ngaphambi kokuba enze izenzo ezithinta ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla. Igama livela kokubili esiGuqulweni sesihlanu (sigunyaza uhulumeni) neSichibiyelo seshumi nane (esigunyaza ohulumeni bezwe). Ulimi oluyinhloko lucishe lufane: akekho umuntu ozobe "engakhonziwe ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho."""

Ngenqubo yayo elula, efanelekile isho ukuthi uhulumeni akanakwenza ngokuthanda. Kumelwe anikeze isaziso, ithuba lokuzwa, kanye nomenzi wesinqumo ongathathi hlangothi. Kodwa inqubo efanele ihlanganisa futhi isivikelo esijulile − ukuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni ngisho nalapho kulandelwa izinqubo ezilungile. Ukuqonda lesimo esingafani sibalulekile ekuqondeni umthetho wanamuhla womthetho-sisekelo.

Isizinda Senqubo Ezokwenzeka Ngokomlando

Umqondo wenqubo efanele ulandelela impande yawo ngaphambi kakhulu koMthetho - sisekelo waseU.S.

IMagna Carta (1215)

Isibonelo sokuqala esidumile kakhulu yiMagna Carta, esasayinwa yiNkosi uJohn yaseNgilandi. Isahluko 39 (kamuva esathi sakuba ngu-29) sithi: “Akekho okhululekileyo ozakubanjwa, agqunywe ejele, aphucwe amalungelo akhe, noma impahla, noma avinjelwe, noma athunjwe ngokungemthetho, noma angabikho owethulwayo nganoma iyiphi enye indlela, noma aqhubeke ngokuphoqelela, noma athumele abanye ukuba benze kanjalo, ngaphandle kokuba ngomthetho ongokomthetho wabalingana naye noma ngomthetho wezwe." Amazwi athi "umthetho wezwe" ukhokhokhokho "owenqubo engaphambili ewumthetho ofanele ukuphuma abantu, isimiso sokuthi umqhele awunakwenza ngaphandle komthetho wesiNgisivamile.

Umthetho Ovamile WesiNgisi NaseMelika Eyikoloni

Emakhulwini eminyaka alandela, izinkantolo zaseNgilandi nePhalamende kwandisa isivikelo ekuboshweni okungenabulungisa nasekuqulweni kwecala. UMthetho kaHabeas Corpus ka-1679 wagcizelela ilungelo lokubekela inselele ukuboshwa okungekho emthethweni. Abenzi bamakoloni baseMelika bawazuza ngefa lamasiko futhi bawafaka enqubeni yombuso yemithetho engokomthetho nezimemezelo zamalungelo. Lapho iBill of Rights ibuthelwa, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sasihlanganisa ngokuqondile nolimi olufanele.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nokungavumelani

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, iSichibiyelo seMinyaka Engamashumi Amane (1868) sandisa inqubo yokuvikela ezenzweni zohulumeni. Lokhu kulungisa kwaba yithuluzi elinamandla eNkantolo Ephakeme "ekubekeni" iningi leBhili Lamalungelo Asembusweni ngokumelene nezifundazwe, okusho ukuthi umbuso nohulumeni kumelwe bawahloniphe amalungelo ayisisekelo njengenkululeko yokukhuluma, ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko, kanye nesivikelo ekucwaningeni okungacabangeli.

Izinhlobo Zenqubo Efanele

Umthetho - sisekelo wanamuhla uhlukanisa inqubo efanele ibe izigaba ezimbili ezihlukene kodwa ezihlobene: inqubo efanele nenqubo eyisisekelo.

Inqubo ejwayelekile

Inqubo efanelekile ye-procedical igxila entweni [ izimfuneko eziqondile kuxhomeke kumongo, kodwa izici ezithile eziyinhloko zidingeka kakhulu:

  • Notice: Umuntu kumelwe aziswe ngesenzo esisikiselwe nesisekelo saso.
  • Ithuba elibalulekile lokuveza ubufakazi nempikiswano phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongakhethi.
  • [[UMTH:0] Isibambiso esingathathi-hlangothi: Umuntu noma umzimba owenza isinqumo kumele ungabi nakukhetha.
  • [ kusekuqondisweni: Ezimweni eziningi, ikakhulukazi ezihilela ukuswela okukhulu, ilungelo lokumelelwa ngokomthetho libalulekile.
  • [ Isinqumo seWritten ngezizathu: Incazelo ecacile yomphumela.

INkantolo Ephakeme yasungula ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela kumaMathews v. Eldidge [1976] ukuze kutholakale ukuthi iyiphi inqubo efunekayo esimweni esithile. Izinkantolo zihlola izici ezintathu: (1) isithakazelo somuntu siqu sithintekile; (2) ingozi yokuncishwa kwephutha ngokusebenzisa izinqubo ezikhona kanye nokubaluleka okulindelekile kwezivikelo ezengeziwe; (3) isithakazelo sikahulumeni, kuhlanganise nemithwalo enzima yokuphatha. Lendlela ethambile isho ukuthi ukuqulwa kwecala eliphelele kungadingeka ngecala lobugebengu, kodwa ukuzwa okuncane okungokomthetho kungagcwalisa inqubo efanele ukuze kuphumele inhlalakahle.

Izibonelo ezivamile zenqubo yokuhlelwa kokuhlelwa okuvamile zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuqulwa kwecala okunamalungelo eseluleko, ukuxabana kofakazi, neqembu labasizi bejaji.
  • Icala eliphethe ngaphambi kokuqeda izinzuzo zeNsirhelelo Yomphakathi.
  • Ukunikezwa kwesiyalo esikoleni okuhlanganisa isaziso nethuba lokusabela.

Inqubo Engeyona Inkinga

Inqubo eyisici edingayo idlula ngalé kwezinqubo. Ivikela amalungelo angokwezimo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izinqubo zilungile kangakanani. Ngisho noma uhulumeni elandela zonke izinyathelo ezingokwemvelo, angayisusa amalungelo athile ngaphandle kokuba inobulungisa obunamandla ngokwaneleyo.

Lemfundiso inomlando oyimpikiswano. Ngasekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa inqubo eyisisekelo edingayo ukuze ishaye imithetho engokomnotho, njengemithetho elinganiselwe yeholo, ezicabeni ezifana Lochner v. New York (1905). Le nkathi yaphela ngawo-1930, futhi iNkantolo manje ithobela imithetho yezezomnotho. Nokho, inqubo engaphansi kwenqubo efanelekile ehambisana nenkululeko yomuntu siqu. Namuhla, ivikela amalungelo "asekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni wesizwe namasiko" futhi "inkulu inkolelo yomthetho yenkululeko""."

Amalungelo abalulekile avikelwe ngaphansi kwenqubo efanele ahlanganisa:

  • [ Amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu:[ Kuhlanganise izinqumo eziphathelene nomshado, ukuzala, ukuvimbela inzalo, ubuhlobo bomkhaya, kanye nokukhulisa abantwana.
  • [ ukushada: Iqashelwa njengelungelo eliyisisekelo ku obergefell v. Hodges (2015).
  • [[UMTL:0] ukuvikela ekutholeni ukwelashwa okungafunwayo.
  • [ ngakwesokudla sokuhamba: ngaphakathi kwe-United States.
  • Esokudlani ukwenqaba ukwelashwa: Kuhlanganisa ukunakekelwa kokuphila (neminye imigoqo).

INkantolo isebenzisa "ukuhlolwa okungokwezinga eliphansi" uma umthetho uphula inqubo eyisisekelo eyisisekelo edinga ukugcinwa. Uhulumeni kumelwe abonise umthetho ufeza isithakazelo esishukumisayo futhi uhlonyiselwe ukufinyelela lesosithakazelo. Kumalungelo angewona angokomsuka, indinganiso iphansi (ukubukezwa okuyisisekelo).

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zachaza futhi zandisa inqubo efanelekile yokuvikela.

Izenzakalo Eziphawulekayo Ezilindelekile

  • Mira v. Arizona (66)] imisiwe ukuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe asole ilungelo lawo lokuthula nokuba nommeli phakathi nokuphenywa kwemvume. Lezi "Miranda" izixwayiso ezisekelwe ekuzivikeleni ngokwawo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): washo ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesithupha sokululeka siyasebenza kumthetho owephula umthetho, ufuna izimemezelo zokunikeza abamangalelwa abamangalelwa emacaleni angomthetho.
  • Goldberg v.Kelly (1970): Kudingeka ukuba abamukeli bezenhlalakahle bathole ukuzwa okusobala ngaphambi kokuqedwa kwezinzuzo, ukumisa ukuthi ngisho nezinzuzo zikahulumeni zenza inzalo yempahla ivikelwe ngenqubo efanele.
  • Gos v. Lopez washo ukuthi abafundi besikole somphakathi ababhekene nenqubo banelungelo lokusebenza, kuhlanganise nesaziso kanye nokuzwa ngokwethukela.
  • Mathews v. Eldidge [6] (6): yadala ukuhlolwa kokulinganisela okungalingani kwenqubo yokulungisa iprocedtura efunwayo, okuxoxwe ngayo ngenhla.

Izenzakalo Eziyingqopha - mlando Ezibalulekile

  • .[FLT] waqaphela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokuhlanganisa imfihlo yomuntu wesifazane, nakuba kamuva yalungiswa [[FLT:] u-'parents'v'. [FLT:] I-Casey [1992] futhi yabekwa umthetho i-Dobs v. Jackson Basign's Organization yempilo [[FLT:] (202]). [i-Dobs] [i-kakhululwe-i-ikhumu eliphakathi kwe-[FLT]] ]
  • obergefell v. Hodges (2015) (2015: Umshado oxhunyiwe uqashelwa njengowesisekelo sokulunga ngaphansi kwakho kokubili iNdlela ka Claus neSivikeli sika Claus esilinganayo.
  • Lawrence v. Texas [2003] Imithetho ephazamisa ukusondelana okungokobulili okungokobulili, iphinde iqinisekise ilungelo lobumfihlo ebuhlotsheni bomuntu siqu.
  • Shashington v. Glucksberg (1997): yabhekana nokuvinjelwa kokuzibulala okusizayo, imisa ukuhlolwa kokuthola amalungelo ayisisekelo: kumelwe "kusekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni nasesikweni" kanye "nomthetho wenkululeko emisiwe"."

Inqubo Elindelekile Ngemibandela Eqondile

Ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo efanele kuyahlukahluka ezingxenyeni zomthetho ezihlukene. Ukuqonda lemibono kubaluleke kakhulu kunoma ubani ohilelekile ekuqulweni kwecala.

Ubulungisa Bobugebengu

Izindlela zokuvikela ezifanele zinamandla kakhulu emthethweni wobugebengu. Abalweli banelungelo lokuqulwa kwecala elisheshayo nelinomphakathi, ijaji elingakhethi, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi, inqubo ephoqelelwe ukuba bathole ofakazi, nelungelo lokunikezwa iseluleko. Umbuso unomthwalo wobufakazi obungenakungatshazwa. Amaphoyisa kumelwe alandele imithetho ephathelene nokuhlola, ukuquleka, nokuphenywa. Laba bavikeli bavimbela izinkolelo ezingalungile nokusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla.

Imfundo

Abafundi besikole somphakathi banamalungelo afanele emikhubeni yokuyala. Icala lephawu Gos v. Lopez lidinga ukuthi ngaphambi kokumisa umfundi izinsuku eziyishumi noma ngaphansi, izikhulu zesikole kumelwe zinikeze isaziso esishiwo ngomlomo noma esibhaliwe samacala kanye nethuba lokuchaza uhlangothi lwabo. Ukususa noma ukuxoshwa, izinqubo eziningi ezingokomthetho zingadingeka. Nokho, izinga lenqubo liphansi kunelokuqulwa kwecala lobugebengu.

Izinzuzo Zomsebenzi Nohulumeni

Izisebenzi zomphakathi zinesithakazelo sempahla emsebenzini wazo uma zinesivumelwano sesivumelwano noma imoto. Azikwazi ukuxoshwa ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, kuhlanganise isaziso kanye nokuzwa. Ngokufanayo, abantu abathola izinzuzo zikahulumeni ezinjengokulondeka kwezenhlalakahle, ukukhubazeka, noma inhlalakahle banesithakazelo sempahla ezinzuzo eziqhubekayo. Uhulumeni kumelwe anikeze isaziso nokuzwa kahle ngaphambi kokuqeda noma unciphise izinzuzo.

Ukufuduka

Abantu abahlala e-United States, kuhlanganise nabafuduki abangabhalwanga, banamalungelo athile afanele enqubo. Banelungelo lokuqulwa phambi komahluleli ofudukayo, ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi, nelungelo lokudlulisa izicelo. Nokho, izinga lalamalungelo lincane kunezakhamuzi. Ngokwesibonelo, ekuthatheni izivumelwano, akukho lungelo lokumiswa kweseluleko ngezindleko zikahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme ikholelwa ukuthi i-STS Procession Claus isebenza ku-"noma imuphi umuntu"indawo, hhayi nje izakhamuzi.

Ukuvinjelwa Kwezakhamuzi

Ukulahlekelwa impahla yombango kuvumela uhulumeni ukuba athathe impahla esolwayo ngokuhileleka emsebenzini wobugebengu, ngokuvamile ngaphandle kokumangalela umnini-mnumzane ngobugebengu. Inqubo efanelekile iqala lapho abanikazi benganikezwa isaziso esanele noma ithuba elifike ngesikhathi lokulwa nokuthatheka. Ezinye izinguquko ziye zasetshenziswa, kodwa lomkhuba usalokhu uphikisana.

Izinselele Zamalungelo Enqubo

Naphezu kwendima yayo eyinhloko, amalungelo afanele abhekene nezingcindezi ezinkulu enkathini yanamuhla.

Ukuhluthulwa Kwamaningi Nokufakwa Kwemicu Eyingozi

Icala elikhulu kakhulu lixazululwa ngokukhokhwa kwezicelo, hhayi ngokuqulwa kwecala. Abamangalelwa abaningi, ikakhulukazi labo abangenamali, bangase bazizwe becindezelwa ukwamukela izivumelwano ngisho noma bengenacala. Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala lingaqedwa ngokuphumelelayo uma isimiso sifaka izikhalo ezifaka izicelo eziqoshiwe zokuhlola ubufakazi.

Umehluko Okhona Ngokobuhlanga Nezomnotho

Ukungalingani kwezimiso kusho ukuthi abantu abaningi abanakukwazi ukukhokha ukumelelwa okungokomthetho okusezingeni eliphezulu. Nakuba Igunya liqinisekisa iseluleko, izimiso zomphakathi zivame ukuncishiswa futhi zikhululeke kakhulu, okuholela ekutholeni impumelelo encane. Ubandlululo lobuhlanga lungathonya futhi izinqumo zomshushisi, ukukhetha abahluleli, nokugweba, lululaza isithembiso sobulungisa obulinganayo.

Ukulondeka Kwesizwe Nokuncibilika Kwaso

Izindlela ezidlulile-9/11, njenge-USA PARIOTT Act ne-Freigent Surveillance Act kahulumeni, ziye zandisa amandla okuhlola kahulumeni. Amaphekula ahlolwa noma lawo amiswa njengamasosha ayizitha angase avalelwe ngaphandle kokungena ezinkantolo noma elulekweni. Izilinganiso phakathi kwenqubo yokuphepha nenqubo efanele zihlala ziphikisana ngokuphuthumayo, njengoba kuboniswe ezimweni ezinjenge Hamdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], lapho iNkathi ephakeme yeNkantolo yeSikhundla ikholelwa ukuthi iU.S. izakhamuzi ezivalelwe njengeqembu eliphethe njengezitha kumelwe zibe nethuba elibalulekile lokucela inselele isigwebo sazo.

Izindaba Zomuntu Siqu Nezobuchwepheshe

Ubuchwepheshe obusha buphakamisa imibuzo edingayo. Ukuhlola kocingo namacomputer nge-withmetal, ukufinyelela kukahulumeni ekusebenziseni i-algoriths kupolishi nokugweba zonke izimfihlo nenqubo elungile. INkantolo Ephakeme iphendule ezimweni ezinjenge Carpater v. United States [2018], ifuna isiqinisekiso semininingwane yendawo yocingo. Kodwa izimpikiswano eziningi aziphenduli, njengokusetshenziswa kobukhombano obuka-mthetho.

Ukumiswa Kwemithetho

Ezinye izishaya-mthetho ziye zamisa imithetho evimbela isivikelo senqubo, njengemingcele ye-habeas corpus, imisho elinganiselwe ephoqelelwe, noma ukuqedwa kwesigwebo. Imithetho yesibopho somphakathi yabaphuli-mthetho abangokobulili ivumela ukuvalelwa okunganqamuki ngemva kwesigwebo sejele, iphakamisa ukukhathazeka okungaphelele kwenqubo efanelekile. Izinkantolo ziyaqhubeka zilwa ngokuthi imithetho enjalo iphula amalungelo ayisisekelo yini.

Isiphetho

Amalungelo enqubo awayona inqubo engekho ezimfundisweni ezingokomthetho; ayizimiso eziphilayo ezivumelana nezimo ezintsha. Kusukela eMagna Carta kuya kwisinqumo samuva seNkantolo Ephakeme, umqondo oyisisekelo uhlala ukhona: uhulumeni kumelwe aphathe abantu ngokungakhethi futhi ahloniphe inkululeko yabo eyisisekelo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ubhekene necala lobugebengu, ukuvinjelwa kwesikole, noma ukulahlekelwa yinzuzo, ukuqonda amalungelo akho afanele enqubo kukuhlomisela ukufuna ubulungisa. Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha, kanjalo nathi kumelwe sizimisele ukuqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu uthola lokho okuthenjiswa umthetho.

Ukuze ufunde ngokuqhubekayo, imithombo yokucwaninga e [[QULT:0] Isikhungo solwazi lwezomthetho , hlola udaba olufushaniswe ku Oyez, noma ukubukeza izinto ze-avcobugsure evela ku- i-American Libersion Union [].