Isisekelo Esingokomlando Sokungahlangani KoMbusi

Imfundiso yokuvikela uhulumeni, esekelwe esicini se-parem engekho-hebet imperium (elinganayo ayinawo amandla phezu kwe-absolist), yavela emasikweni e-monarchy yaseYurophu. Esimweni sayo sakudala, imfundiso evikelekile ezinkantolo zakwamanye amazwe njengesibonakaliso senhlonipho nokulinganisa phakathi kwamakhosi. Inkantolo ephakeme yachaza lesi simiso i-Screat Exchangev. [M'FLT] [FLT] [12], iphethe ukuthi izibokazi zezokuvikela zangaphandle zazinganciphini eMelikani ehlangeneyo.

Ukusuka ekugonyeni okuphelele ekuvikelekeni kokuzivikela okuvimbelayo kuqhubeke ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II, okuqhutshwa ukuhileleka okukhulu kwezentengiselwano zikahulumeni. Umthetho ka-Immunies UMbusi Wangaphandle wase-U.I-Immunies Act (FSITA) wasekela lendlela evimbelayo, wakhipha ukuziphatha kwezentengiselwano ekuvikeleni izikhali kuyilapho ulondoloza isivikelo somphakathi. Izinqubo ezifanayo zokulawula umthetho zavela kulo lonke elaseYurophu nase-Asia, ziveza ukuvumelana okuthi ukusebenza njengezisebenzi zezentengiso akufanele kujabulele ukuzivikela okungaphazamiseki. Nokho lezi zinsimbi zasho okuncane ngokwephulwa kwamalungelo abantu, zakha ibhulo lokuza ukugcwala okungokomthetho okunzima ukugcwalisa.

Ukwanda Kwamalungelo Abantu Ezizwe Zonke

Inguquko yamalungelo abantu yamuva ngo-1945 yawuguqula ngokuyisisekelo umthetho wezizwe zonke. Ngokuthathwa kwe UMthetho ohlanganisa izibopho zamalungelo abantu ngo-1948], yaqaphela ukuthi abantu babenamalungelo adlula imingcele yesizwe. Izivumelwano zenza izivumelwano zenza izivumelwano zesivumelwano se-International Convention on Civil and Poligin Rights, i-Geneva, neConvention Against Torrance, neConvention Constivation Active progations zoving, ukuze kuvinjelwe, kunqandwe, kuqe, kuqedwe, futhi kulungiswe ukuxhasha isigwebo. Lezi zinsimbi zasungula umqondo [[FLT:] coggens : izinqubo zokuhlenga umthetho womthetho wezizwe wonke, kuhlanganise nokwenqanyulwa kwesizwe, kuhlanganise nokuvikelwa kwesizwe.

Izinkantolo zezelelesi zomhlaba wonke zandisa lezi zenzakalo. Icala laseNuremberg laveza ukuthi abantu bangabekwa icala lobugebengu ngezenzo ezenziwa ngaphansi kwegunya likahulumeni, ukubhoboza imbobo yobukhosi. International Criminal Court , eyamiswa yiRome Signalte ngo1998, ifaka isibopho sokulandisa kobugebengu ngabanye empahleni yomthetho wezwe lonke. Lemikhakha yasungula yayingabhekisi ngokuqondile isamba semithetho emelene nezifundazwe, kodwa yadala indawo engokomthetho lapho izibophopho zamalungelo abantu zazibhekwa njengezezezezenzile kakhulu ezingeni ezingokwesiko zesimiso somthetho.

Izinhlangano zamalungelo abantu nezazi ezingokomthetho zaphikisa ngokuthi ukunikeza imibuso isigwebo sokuhlushwa noma ukubulawa kwabantu okungaphezulu kwecala kubekwa icala lokuhlushwa ngokuphumelelayo nganoma yiliphi ikhambi − umphumela ongqubuzana nayo kanye injongo yomthetho wamalungelo abantu. Lokhu kuncintisana phakathi kokulingana ngokusemthethweni nobulungisa ngabanye kwaba yiphutha elikhulu ekuhlaseleni kwesimiso sokuzivikela somzimba samanje.

Impikiswano Ye - Jus Cogens

Inselele yemfundiso yemfundiso enamandla kakhulu empilweni yokuvikela ubukhosi bokuzivikela yavela embonweni jus cogens. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi imigaqo yokuzihlenga, ngokwencazelo, basusa noma yimuphi umthetho wezizwe jikelele, kuhlanganise nemithetho ephikisanayo elawulayo yezwe. Uma ukuhlushwa kwenqatshelwe ngokuphelele, akukho mbuso ongathola ukuthi ukuzivikela kwesu lokungaphulwa ekuhlulwa ukuhlukunyezwa komphakathi. I-Inkakhulu le-jastivel'uni ekhuluma ngalempikiswano [FTLT:] Juridictionalictal Immunications State (Ryan v. Italy)[FLT:] [202], ephethe ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwemithetho ne-jumgnums ezisebenza kakhulu ezingenisweni ezihlukahlukene: ukuvikela i-proctan, i-evenctal. I-IM JJ iphethe ngokungenye ingxabano yemithetho engekhona ngokuvimbela ukusekela kwemithetho ngenxa yokuphikisa kwemithetho engcono ngenxa yokusekela kwemithetho engcono ngenxa yokusekela.

Umthetho Oyinhloko Wecala Nentuthuko Eyivelakancane

Sekungamashumi eminyaka izinkantolo zasekhaya zilwa nale mibuzo, ziveza ukwahlulela okuhlukene kodwa okuhambisanayo.

I - Alien Tort Eqedtment Ne - litiging Yase - United States

E-United States, isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [[FLT: 0] i-Alien Tort Ement [2011] sanikeza isisekelo sokulawula samazwe angaphandle sokumangalela ukuphula umthetho wezizwe zonke. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme Sosab. Alvarez-Machain [2014] [206]) yaqaphela ukuthi izibalo zingaqhubeka ngaphansi kwemithetho elinganiselwe ebanzi eyaziwa emhlabeni wonke. Ukuchatshaza izikhulu zakwamanye amazwe nezinhlangano ezixubeneyo zaveza imiphumela. [[FLT] [FLT] [4]. . .[5] I-ANkakhulukazi i-Dutchroumle.[5] [i-FM.]

Naphezu kwalokhu kuhluleka, amalungelo abantu ahlukile ekugonyeni ubukhosi asinda ngemibandela elinganiselwe. Ukungalawuleki kwe-FSIA, okwenziwa ngo-1996 futhi kwanwetshwa ngo-2008, kuvumela amasutu amelene nemibuso emiswe njengezinhlangano zikahulumeni ezisekela izenzo zokuhlukumeza, ukubulala kobuphekula, nokuthumba. Lokhu kuveza isahlulelo sezombangazwe amazwe athile alahlekelwa yizinga lokuvikeleka ngokusekela kwawo ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokuhleleka.

Izinkantolo ZaseYurophu Nenguquko Ebekelwe Imingcele

Imithetho yaseYurophu yokuvikela ukuvikela uhulumeni namalungelo abantu iye yaba namandla kakhulu. INkantolo yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu [ku- Al-Adsani v. i-United Kingdom (2001] yalahla ukunqatshelwa kwemithetho enqabela ukuvikelwa kwecala lokuhlushwa, ukuhlobana nemithetho engokwesiko. Nokho, iNkantolo yoMthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wase-Italy e] ku-ALY-Adsanion. [2001] u-Decious.[238] (20] wabekela ngokuqondile ukuvikelwa kwe-ICJ'ucristion I-Iction, iphethe ukuthi izinkantolo zase-Italy zingalalela ukulwa kwe-WWII ngenxa yezenzo zesizwe ngenxa yokuvunyelwa kwemithetho yezizwe zonke. [intembelo-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko]

Izinkantolo zaseGreki ngokufanayo zamisa imingcele. Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany (2002], iNkantolo ePhakeme yamaGreki ekuqaleni yaphika ukuvikeleka kobugebengu bempi yamaNazi, kodwa yashintshwa yiNkantolo ePhakeme ePhakeme ePhakeme ezisekelweni. INkantolo ye-German Federal Constitution ithathe indlela eqinile, iqinisekisa ukuvikeleka ngisho nasezimweni ezihilela ukuphulwa amalungelo abantu okukhulu, uma ikhona ezinye izindlela zokuvikela.

Iminikelo YaseNingizimu NeyaseNingizimu Embulungeni Yonke

Izinkantolo eGlobal South ziye zaqala ukuhlanganisa lemibuzo, ngokuvamile ngombono obeka amalungelo abantu kuqala phezu kobukhosi besizwe. Inkantolo yomthetho-mthetho we-Colombia, e Decision C-788 (20)], ikholelwa ukuthi ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu okungathi sína kungakha ukuhlukana okungokomthetho ekuvimbeleni uhulumeni, ikakhulukazi lapho izisulu bezingeke zibe nezindlela zokulungisa. Inkantolo ePhakathi ye-Argentina ivuse izigwegwe ngokumelene nobugebengu bakwamanye amazwe esintu, idwebela ngokuhlangenwe nakho komlando wezwe ngobulungisa obuguquguqukayo. Lezi zibonisa ukuqaphela okukhulayo ukuthi imfundiso evikelayo engokongalawuleki kumelwe ivumelane nezindinganiso zabantu, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni lapho ubudlova bubangele khona ukuhlupheka.

Izindlela Zokulwa Nokubuyisana

Ukungezwani phakathi kobukhosi namalungelo abantu akuyona nje imfundiso; kunezici ezisobala ezihlobene nezingxoxo, ubuhlobo bombuso, nezisulu.

Isivikelo seDiplomatic kanye noMbuso-ukuya-isimo se-Negotiation

Uma izinkantolo zasekhaya zenqaba ukuzwa ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokumelene nemibuso yakwamanye amazwe, izisulu zingaphendukela ekuvikeleni kwezizwe: umbuso wazo usekela ukumangalela ngezindlela zobuzwe. Lendlela, eqashelwa yi-ICJ, ilondoloza ukuvikeleka kombuso ngenkathi inikeza elinye ikhambi. Nokho, ibeka isinqumo sokufuna ukulwela ngokuphelele ezandleni zezwe lesisulu, okungase kwenqabe ukwenza isenzo ngezizathu zezombangazwe. I-International Law Commission’s Distap on Diplomatic Protection (2006) itusa ukucatshangelwa okufanelekile kokungase kusetshenziswe kwesivikelo kwezokuxhumana, ikakhulukazi lapho ingozi enkulu yenzekile, kodwa akukho sibopho esibophayo.

Isivumelwano Esisekelwe Kulokho Okungathandeki NeWaiver

Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zangena ezivumelwaneni ze-biladayo noma zezonyaka eziguqula ukuvikelwa kobukhosi eMthethweni wamalungelo abantu. Isivumelwano seZizwe Ezihlangene kuJurisdical Immunial Immunitunies of States neNdawo Yazo [ [2004], kuyilapho kungakaphoqeleki, sihlanganisa umsebenzi wezentengiselwano owehlukile kweSiphakamiso 10 kodwa ngokuphawulekayo ususa amalungelo abantu. Isivumelwano seZizwe ezihlangene embula ukuhlukana okukhulu phakathi kwezifunda ezisekela ukuvikelwa kwemithetho ezindaweni ezithanda ukuvikelwa imingcele nalabo abasekela ukuphulwa kwelungelo labantu elingathi sína. Lokhu kubonisa ukuthatheka okuqhubekayo kwendaba eqophelweni elilandela isilinganiso senani.

Okunye Ukusebenzisa Imishini

Ikhungathekiswe yimingcele yokwahlulela, ezinye izifundazwe ziye zasungula izinqubo zokubuyisela izinxephezelo ukuze zikhulume ngokuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu okungokomlando. I-Foundation "Remembrance, Justice and Future" yanikeza imbuyiselo kwalabo ababesebenza ngenkathi yobuNazi, zilungisa iziphakamiso zokuthi ngenye indlela babezovivinya isimiso sokuzivikela sobuso ezimisweni eziningi. I-Italy yamisa iNgxoxoxo yeZisulu zeMpi Zobugebengu zobuzwe ukuze ihlawulele izisulu zezenzo zempi zamaNazi ngemva kokuba i-ICCCYP ilwe nayo Jeuriniganication Imdiation I. Lendlela yokulungisa, nakuba ingakhonzé ikhona ngaphandle kwe-gemgam, uma inikeza ngisho nokulungangabulungisa.

Izimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo Neziqondiso Zesikhathi Esizayo

Umthetho wokuzimela kwabantu nokulwela ukubusa usuke ungenakuxazululwa.

Indawo ephikisayo ye-Trorismism

I-post-9/11 yenze ukuba kuncishiswe ubuphekula, ikakhulukazi e-United States nase Canada. IJaji Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA) (2016) yavumela amasutu kumacala amelene nezizwe ngezenzo zobuphekula ezenzeka eUnited States, ezilawula ukuvikela kobuso be-aldercitroniki emongweni ethile. Lo mthetho wabangela ukuphikisana okukhulu, futhi ohulumeni bakwamanye amazwe baxwayisa ukuthi ingenza ubudlelwane bomhlaba wonke bungantengantengantengantengantenga futhi ilulaza ubukhosi. Saudi Arabia Arabia wabhekana nokulwa okuphindaphindwayo ngaphansi kokuhlasela kwe-9/11. Lezi zimo ziphakamisa imibuzo ejulile ngemingcele yemithetho ye-otraterritariorial ment nendima efanele yezinkantolo ekukhulumeni kwesifunda ngesifunda sesifundazwe-sosha hulumeni.

Umthwalo Wemfanelo Nokuzikhandla

Amalungelo abantu abekwa inselele eyandayo ezinhlangano ezithi ziye zasizakala noma zazuza ekuxhashazweni kwamalungelo abantu. [Umthetho] Doe v.[FLT] (icala lama-2002] eUnited States kanye ] iVedantancas Plc v. [Umnum] [[FLT]] [2029]) eUnited Kingdom) yamisa ukuthi izinhlangano ezimzali zingaba nesibopho sokunakekela abantu ngabanye abathintelwe yimisebenzi yazo encintisanayo ekwaphuleni amalungelo abantu. Nakuba lezi zimo zingabeki imibandela ngokuqondile yokuvinjelwa, zivele ziyishaye ngokuhlasela abadlali bezentengo yeze yezentengo ezihlangene ezisebenzela abantu abambalwa emishangweni engokondlekile yemisebenzi eseYurophu.

Ukuhlangana Kwezikhulu ZoMbuso Nezikhulu ZoMbuso

Umbuzo ohlobene kodwa ohlukile uphathelene nokugonyelwa kwezikhulu zikahulumeni kanye nezikhulu zakwamanye amazwe, zenza i-ICJ ezindaweni zobugebengu nasebuthweni lomphakathi. i-Arrest Warrant Warrant [11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium][FLD1] [2002] [isho ukuthi abefundisi bakwamanye amazwe] bajabulela ukuvikeleka okugcwele ekumangalelweni kwecala ezinkantolo zakwamanye amazwe, ngisho nangenxa yokumangalelwa kwecala lempi. Nokho, isahlulelo sashiya ithuba lokumangalelwa ezinkantolo zomhlaba wonke noma ngemva kwehhovisi yezikhulu. Icala lika-Roct [FLD:2] [irgn] [iggcop] izikhulu zezenyunde yezizwe eziningi zale, i-ICalbactic wist , i-Sudan, i-Supment ye-Afrika ephethe i-Afrivertive i-eve i-evinyo ephansi lezenyuka iRomet. Izikhulu, iveza ngisho nesinqumo

Izigaba Zesifunda Ezisetshenziswayo

Amalungelo abantu ahlukile ekugonyweni kobukhosi aye aba khona ngokungafani ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene, ebonisa amasiko angokomthetho ahlukahlukene, okuhlangenwe nakho okungokomlando, nezimo zezombangazwe.

EYurophu: Indlu Ehlukene Phakathi

Izifundazwe zaseYurophu zihlala zihlukene phakathi kwalabo abanamathela ekulawuleni okuqinile kokuzivikela komzimba (iJalimane, iUnited Kingdom) nalabo abathatha imingcele elinganiselwe (i-Italy, iGreece, futhi, ngokwezinga eliphansi, iPoland neSlovenia). I-European Union ayikakhulumi ngokuqondile ngezimiso zokuvikela amalungelo abantu, ishiya amazwe angamalungu ukuba ahambe kulendawo ngomthetho wesizwe nangencazelo yokwahlulela. I-Councial of European’s Convention on State Immunity (1972) ayisho lutho ngamalungelo abantu, nakuba iNkanto eYurophu yamaLungu eveza ukuthi inelungelo lokuvikela amalungelo abantu lapho ukuphulwa kwelungelo kukhona.

ENyakatho Melika: Ubuphekula Nemithetho Eqoshiwe Ehlukile

I-United States neCanada ziye zandisa ukunqanda ukuvikela komzimba ngokulandela umthetho ofuna abaxhasi bobuphekula. I-State Immuniny Act yalungiswa ngo-2012 ukuze ibangele ukuhlukana kobuphekula, ikwazi ukwenza izisulu ukuba zisongwe njengezisekeli zobuphekula. Womabili amazwe alondoloza indlela eqinile yokuvikela izifo ezicaleni zezentengiselwano kodwa aqophe amalungelo abantu ahlukile ngokwezombangazwe kunezimiso zokwahlulela. Lendlela iveza ukuhlehlela okungokomthetho: izinkantolo ezilalela izikhulu ngezindaba zamazwe angaphandle, kuyilapho izinyunyana zisabela ekufuneni kwabantu ukulandisa komphakathi.

E - Asia NaseAfrika: Ukuhlanganyela Okuhlanganisayo

Izinkantolo e-Asia nase-Afrika ziqala ukuhileleka kulemibuzo, ngokuvamile ithonywe yintuthuko yezomthetho wezizwe zonke. INkantolo ye-South Africa yoMthetho-sisekelo, Igunya leRepublic of South Africa v. Von Abon, iqaphela ukuthi umthetho wezizwe zonke ovamile wezokuvikela ungayiguqula imibandela ukuze ivikele amalungelo abantu. Nokho, lezinkantolo ziyeka ngokuvamile ukwenza amalungelo abantu azimele i-Union of Indian Bachaolan[[FLT][2003] [i]] iqaphela ukuthi umthetho ovamile owenzelwe ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ahlukene [eqekeleleka imingcele ye- - e- - komitini yokwahlulela. I-Azadi Baybandoolan ) ikakhulukazi (2003]) uvuma ukumiswa kwemithetho yomhlaba wonke ekuchazeni umthetho wasekhaya. Nokho, nakuba, lezinkantolo ziye zayeka kakhulu ukuveza ukulinganisela kwezimiso zabantu eziqinile ekuhlolwayo ukuba abantu, zibonise ukuvikela amalungelo alungele

Isiphetho

Imfundiso yokugonyelwa kwesimiso sobukhosi ishintsha kakhulu. Lokho okwake kwaba yisivikelo esiphelele sekuye kwaba yisivikelo esifanelekile, okungamelwe kushiywe umthetho, isivumelwano, nencazelo yokwahlulela. Ukuvela kwezimiso zamalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke akukuqedanga ukuvikela kobukhosi, kodwa kuye kwaphoqelela izinkantolo, izishayamthetho, nezazi ukuba zibhekane nemibuzo engathandeki ngobuhlobo phakathi kobukhosi bombuso nobulungisa babantu ngabanye.

Isinqumo se-ICJ's Juristional Immunitunies (IJamaniany v. Italy) samisa ukuthi akukho ukunqatshelwa kwelungelo lomuntu okuvamile okukhona ngaphansi komthetho wezwe jikelele. Nokho, isahlulelo asizange sifihle ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi amazwe angazenza, ngesivumelwano noma umthetho wasekhaya, adala ukuhluka okunjalo. Ngokuyisisekelo, isinqumo asiyivimbanga ingxoxo evamile: amalungelo abantu ayaqhubeka ecindezela ukunqanda ukugcinwa kwemithetho esemthethweni ekwahluleleni. Izinkantolo zasemakhaya zisebenza ngokuqhubekayo njengezindawo zokuhlola inqubo engokomthetho, zivivinya imingcele yokuzivikela ezimweni ezihilela ubugebengu obungathi sína bomhlaba wonke.

Kudokotela nabenzi bezimiso, ukuthatha lesi simo kudinga ukuqonda okucacile komthetho osebenzayo ezindaweni zonke. Umbuzo awusekho ukuthi izimiso zamalungelo abantu ziyawathinta yini amasosha ombuso .Aziwathinta, futhi ziwajule kakhulu. Umbuzo uwukuthi ukuhlanganisa izindinganiso ezimbili eziyisisekelo: ukuhlonipha ubukhosi bamazwe kanye nokuziphendulela ekuphucweni kwamalungelo abantu amathuna. Akukho mpendulo eyodwa iye yavela, futhi akukho neyodwa engazenelisa ngokugcwele bonke ababambi bezigodlo. Okusobala ukuthi imfundiso yesimiso sokuvikela amalungelo abantu iye yangaphendulwa unomphela unomthetho owelungelo, futhi indawo engokomthetho iyaqhubeka ishintsha njengezindaba ezintsha, izivumelwano ezintsha, neziphetho ezintsha zezombangazwe.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe ngokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwesimiso sokuvikela kobukhosi namalungelo abantu, bheka [[FLT: 0] Juristional Immunications of the State (Rhamaney v. Italy) Ukwahlulela [, i- Convention on Juriscissialication Immunitunies [, kanye nezincazelo zeNhlangano yeMelika yezizwe zonke [[FLT:]] eMFLT] ekuvikelekeni komthetho kwamanje. Ukuqonda lezi zenzakalo kubalulekile ekusebenzeni ngokomthetho eqenjini yomthetho womphakathi, amalungelo abantu, kanye nokuhlahlela umphakathi.