Ubuhlobo phakathi kwezinhlangano zomphakathi namalungelo omthetho-sisekelo buyinqubo eshukumisayo nengaphinde ihlonze i-octal esemthethweni yaseMelika amakhulu amaningi eminyaka. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo unikeza isisekelo senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, ngokuvamile ngezenzo ezihlangeneyo (-"iprojects", i-ligitation, i-odoctivedvocacy, ne'izimpande zotshani ezihlela" ukuthi ukufinyelela kwangempela kanye nencazelo yalawomalungelo kuhlolwe futhi kwandisiwe. Lesihloko sihlola indlela izinhlangano zezenhlalo eziye zathonya ngayo incazelo, ukubuyiselwa, ukugcinwa kwenkululeko yomthetho-mthetho kanye nokugcinwa kwenkululeko eUnited States, izibonelo eziyinhloko nezokulwa okuqhubekayo.

Umlando Wezinhlangano Zomphakathi

Izinhlangano zezenhlalo ziye zaba amandla ashukumisayo ekunwetshweni kwesivikelo somthetho-sisekelo kusukela ekusungulweni kwesizwe. Kusukela emzabalazweni wokunqanda ukuyiswa kwezisebenzi, izakhamuzi ziye zahlomela ukubekela izinhlelo ezingokomthetho nezezenhlalo eziphika inkululeko eyisisekelo. Lezi zinhlangano ngokuvamile zisebenza ngaphandle kwezindlela ezingokomthetho zezombangazwe, kodwa ziye zalololonga kakhulu uhlelo lomthetho ngokulwela izinguquko ezintsha, zithonya ukuchazwa kwemithetho, futhi ziguqula izimiso zomphakathi.

Inhlangano Yezobuhlanga Neziphendulo Zokuvuselela

Umzabalazo wokuqeda inqubo yokuncishiswa kwekhulu le-19 waholela ngokuqondile ekuthatheni iziNguqulo ze-Reconstructon +=iSichibiyelo sekhulu le-13, se-14 nese-15) esiye saqeda ubugqila, saqinisekisa isivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho, futhi savimbela ukucwaswa kohlanga ekuvotelweni. Lokhu kulungisa ngokuyisisekelo kwawuguqula uMthetho-sisekelo futhi kwabeka isisekelo sokuncintisana kwamalungelo omphakathi kamuva. Imizamo yabashisekeli bempi enjengoFrederick Douglas, Harriet Tubman, nabanye abangenakubalwayo baguqula izinkolelo zokuvision zaba ngokomthetho.

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Ezakhamuzi

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 no 1960 iseyisibonelo esinamandla kakhulu sanamuhla senhlangano yezenhlalo elahla umthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Ngokuphikelela kokubhikisha okungenabudlova, icebo lomthetho, nokucindezela komphakathi, abashisekeli bachitha uhlelo olungokomthetho lukaJim Crow Conrow. Impumelelo yalo mkhankaso yayihlanganisa izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme nemithetho kahulumeni eyandisa isivikelo esilinganayo kanye namalungelo okuvota.

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) yamemezela ubandlululo lobuhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi olungekho ngokwesivumelwano, igumbuqele lemfundiso “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo” futhi iqinise isithembiso seSichibiyelo se-14.
  • Umthetho wamalungelo abantu ka-1942 ubandlululo olungekho emthethweni ezindaweni zomphakathi zokulala, emsebenzini, nezinhlelo ezixhaswe nguhulumeni.
  • I-Pixating Rights Act ka-65 yenqabela izindlela zokuvota zobuhlanga, ikhuluma ngokulahla ama-Afrika agcwele.

Ukuthembela kwalenhlangano kuzo zombili izenzo eziqondile (izinyathelo zokuthatha isinyathelo, inkululeko yokugibela, ukumasha) nokunikeza incazelo kubonisa indlela izinhlangano zomphakathi ezisebenzisa ngayo amathuluzi amaningi ukuze zifinyelele ushintsho lomthetho-mthetho. Ukunqoba okungokomthetho kwakuhambisana nokushintshashintsha kokuqonda komphakathi, okwakwenza lezo zinqumo zisekelwe.

Ukuhamba Kwabesifazane Ngenkani

Inhlangano yabesifazane ehlukumeza abesifazane yalwa cishe iminyaka eyikhulu ukuze ivikele amalungelo okuvota abesifazane, yafinyelela umvuthwandaba ekuncishisweni kweSichibiyelo sekhulu lekhulu ngo-1920. Lenhlangano yabekela inselele inqubo ekhona yabesifazane nezincazelo zomthetho - sisekelo ezazingahambisani nabesifazane ekuhlanganyeleni kwezombangazwe. Izenzakalo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa iSeneca Falls Convention (1848), i-aclivism kaSusan B. Anthony noElizabeth Cady Stanton, kanye nemikhankaso yesizwe engokomthetho eyakha ukucindezela kwezenzo zikahulumeni. ISinyundemuselo se 19 sihlala siyisivumelwano sendlela yokulungisa izinhlangano zezenhlalo lapho imikhankambiso yezelo yezelelwa ngokuqondile lapho imikhankambiso yezelo noma iviswa.

Inhlangano Yezisebenzi Namalungelo Ezomnotho

Nakuba ngokuvamile kunganakwa ekulandiseni komthetho-mthetho, umzabalazo wezisebenzi wasemakhulwini enkulungwane ye-19 nasekuqaleni kwelama-20 walwela amalungelo ezisebenzi ukuba zihlele, zihlangane, zigadle, futhi zigadle (amalungelo) kamuva aqashelwa njenge sisekelo ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala nezimiso ezifanele. Lenhlangano yaholela eSivumelwaneni seNational Labor Relations Act ka-1935 futhi yathonya izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme njenge [[FLL:0] NLB v. Jones & Lauglin Stel Corp.[ [197], eyasekela ukuvikelwa komthetho wesivikelo sezisebenzi zikahulumeni ngaphansi kwe-Classicaus.

Izinhlangano Zanamuhla Zezenhlalo Nethonya Lazo Lomthetho - sisekelo

Izinhlangano zamuva ziyaqhubeka zisunduza imingcele yamalungelo omthetho - sisekelo, zigxile ezimpikiswaneni abahleli besimiso sobandlululo, ubulili, ukukhubazeka, kanye nokungahloniphi izinto zobuchwepheshe. Le zinhlangano zisebenza endaweni eshintshiwe engokomthetho kodwa zihlala zibalulekile ekuphendukeleni okuqhubekayo komthetho - sisekelo.

Ukuphila Okunsundu Kubalulekile Nokubuyiselwa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi

I-Black Lives Intotter, eyazuza ukuvelela kwesizwe ngemva kokubulawa kuka-2014 kukaMichael Brown e-Forson, eMissouri, futhi yaqhubeka ikhula ngemva kokubulawa kuka-2020 kaGeorge Floyd, iye yaphinda yahlanganisa izimfuneko zokuguqula kwamaphoyisa nobulungisa bezinhlanga. Lenhlangano iye yathonya izinguquko zesimiso esingokomthetho ezweni nasemazingeni endawo, kuhlanganise nokuvinjelwa kwezinga lokumiswa kwekhamera, izimfuneko zekhamera zomzimba, kanye namabhodi abaphathi besizwe. Nakuba ithonya layo eliqondile lomthetho-sisekelo lisalokhu livuleka, lenhlangano iye yabangela izinselele ezingokomthetho ngaphansi kwe-Credimian ne-Angleementations mayelana namandla aphakeme nezimiso ezifanelekayo, futhi iye yakhuthaza umthetho kahulumeni njengomthetho we-Clivilcilligation in Provision Act. Inhlangano iqokomisa indima yezentengiselwa ekwamukeleni ekwa amalungelo, njengoba kuholiselwa ekuvuni enkulu enkulu.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo: Kusukela eStonewall kuya eObergefell nangalé

I - LGBTQ+ amalungelo aye afinyelela ukunqoba okuphawulekayo komthetho - sisekelo ngokuhlangana kokuphambanisa, ukuqamba izigebengu, nokushintsha kwempucuko. Kusukela ekubhikisheni kwamatshe ngo - 1969 naqhubeka ngezinkinga zengculaza nangemikhankaso yokulingana kwemishado, lenhlangano iye yashintsha indlela izinkantolo eziqonda ngayo inkululeko, ukulingana, nenqubo efanele ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo se - 14.

  • LAWREnce v. Texas [2003] ishaye imithetho ye-sodoma, iqaphela ukuthi ukuziphatha okuseduze kuvikelwe yi-Claus yeNkathi Emisiwe.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) yamisa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lomshado olinganayo wesilisa sobulili ezweni lonke, imisa isinqumo kokubili ngenqubo efanele nangezimiso ezilinganayo zokuvikela.
  • [[QUT:0] UMthetho wokulingana[, odluliswa yindlu kaningi kodwa ungakabikho umthetho, unganikeza isivikelo esibanzi sikahulumeni ekucwaseni okusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili obuhlukile nasokwaziwa kwabesifazane.

Lenhlangano yaphumelela futhi ekulondolozeni isivikelo ngaphansi kwesihloko VII ngesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme kubock v. Clayton County [2020], eyayithi ukucwaswa okusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili noma ukugqashuka komzimba kungokobulili. Lesi sinqumo sibonisa indlela izinhlangano ezingafinyelela ngayo ithonya lomthetho - sisekelo ngisho nalapho kungekho umthetho, ngokuthuthukisa ukuchazwa kwemithetho ekhona.

Inhlangano Engawafuni Amalungelo Ne - ADA

Inhlangano yamalungelo abantu ekhubazeka yavela ngawo-1970 nango-1980, yafinyelela umvuthwandaba eMelika enoMthetho woBukhubazeki (ADA) ka-1990, owenqabela ukucwaswa kwabantu abakhubazekile emsebenzini, izinkonzo zomphakathi, nezindawo zomphakathi zokulala. Nakuba kungezona iziphendu zomthetho-sisekelo, i-ADA isekelwe eMthethweni weSiphendu we-14 seSimende ne-Act Programme Claus, futhi i-ADCONS yabangela ukuba izinkantolo zokuhlukanisa abantu ngenkululeko yokukhubazeka ziqaphele ukucwaswa okusekelwe ekuphuleni amalungelo ayisisekelo. Icala elinophawu elinjenge [[FLLL:] emmastersitetion v.[FLC. (1999]) lachaza i-ADADA-okhacy ukuze idise izinkonzo ezikhubaze abantu ngengqondo, ukuhlanganisa izimiso zenkululeko ne-bukhompume.

Ubulungisa Bendawo Ezungezile Nelungelo Lokuthola Indawo Enempilo

Inhlangano yezenhlalo esungulayo igxila ekwahluleleni okungokomphakathi, ihlanganisa ukuwohloka kwendawo ezungezile namalungelo omphakathi. Izikhulu zezokuhlalisana ziphikisa ngokuthi ukungcola, ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu, nokukhishwa kwemithombo yemvelo kulimaza ngokungenakuqhathaniswa imiphakathi ebekwe imingcele ehlukene, kufaka isivikelo esifanayo nenqubo efanelekile. Nakuba izinkantolo bezingabaza ukuqaphela ilungelo elingokomthetho lokusingiselwa endaweni enempilo, inhlangano iye yathonya ukuhluleka kwemithetho kahulumeni yesizwe (ngokuncane kweshumi lamazwe akhona manje anezimo zemvelo ezikhubaza amalungelo emvelo. Icala eliphawulekayo lezwe, Juliana v. United States [ifayili ngo 2015]), ifuna ukumisa ukuthi ukuhluleka kukahulumeni ukushintsha isimo sezulu sezwe liphula amalungelo ezinganeni, inkululeko, impahla. Nakuba ekugcineni liyisusa icala lokuhlanganisa ukuhlangana kwezinhlangano zezenhlalakahle yezenhlalo ne-Gropublictictiontion.

Indima Yengoma

Imisebenzi yejaji njengomxhumanisi obalulekile phakathi kwezinhlangano zezenhlalo noshintsho lomthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo zichaza uMthetho-sisekelo ngokusabela ezinkingeni zomthetho ezilethwa abashisekeli, futhi abahluleli bavame ukucabangela ukuhlanganisa imithetho yezenhlalakahle. Nokho, lenqubo ikude kakhulu nezinqumo ezilandelanayo .(ne) zeziqu zingasheshisa noma zivimbele izinhloso zokuhamba, futhi ukuhlelwa kwezinkantolo kungashintsha kakhulu ngokuhamba kwesikhathi.

Izinkinga Eziwuphawu Eziqhutshwa Izinhlangano

Izinqumo eziningi ezibaluleke kakhulu zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziwumphumela oqondile wezinhlangano zezenhlalo ezaletha amacala okuhlolwa ngezindlela ezifanelekile.

  • .Roe v. [1973]) yayiwumkhiqizo wesivumelwano sombuso wamalungelo abesifazane sokuzimela ukuzala, uqaphela ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokufihla imfihlo ngaphansi kweSiphendu se 14. Isinqumo samuva [ku- Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [20222], esibonisa ukuthi izinhlangano zezenhlalo zingasusa ukuhlehlela kokuncitshiswa kwamalungelo (8) ne-Abinortionsmsms ne-cerobeval.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) wamisa ilungelo lokweluleka ezicabeni zecala, ngemva kweminyaka eminingi yokuqashwa yiqembu elifana ne-American Civil Liberties Union kanye nabavikeli bomphakathi abaphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo sesithupha sasidinga amazwe ukuze kunikezwe abameli abamangalelwa abangemthetho.
  • ICIIzenfashini ehlangene v. FEC (2010) yalolongwa ukunxusa kwenhlangano efuna ukulawulwa kwemali esetshenziswa ngomkhankaso, inikeza izinkampani nezinhlangano ilungelo lokusebenzisa imali engenamkhawulo enkulumweni yezombangazwe ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala.

Indima yejaji ayiyona eyedwa; amajaji athonywa yizimo zezenhlalo ezibanzi, i-amicus ezibekwe izinhlangano zezinhlangano, nombono womphakathi. Nokho, isimo sokumelana neziqu zezinkantolo sisho ukuthi izinhlangano ngezinye izikhathi ziwina ukunqoba kokwahlulela ngisho nalapho zingakusekeli ukusekela kwemithetho.

Izinselele Nokumelana Nezikhungo ZaseBench

Izinhlangano zomphakathi zivame ukubhekana nokwenqaba kokwahlulela. Ngokwesibonelo, ekuqaleni kwe-20 yekhulu lama-20 imithetho yezisebenzi yashaywa phansi njengemithetho ephikisayo esemthethweni emvumeni (umz., Lochner v. New York, 1905]),. Izinhlangano ezisemthethweni ezingokwesiko ziphumelele ekulinganiseleni ukufinyelela uMthetho we-Voing Rights Act (umz. [[FLT:]] Shelby County. Haver, 2013, eziye zafaka izivumelwano zezombangazwe ezisekelwe ekwahluleleni komthetho ([FLT]) futhi zivimbela ukufinyelela kwezenzo ([FLD:] [FLD] [12], [12], Harvard [12], [1] Izabela, noma izivumelwano zezomthetho womthetho omthetho ongokomthetho ongokomthetho.[3]

Ukuhlangana Kwezinhlangano Nomthetho

Nakuba izinhlangano zomphakathi ngokuvamile ziphendukela ezinkantolo, zibuye zifune izinguquko ezisekela izimiso zomthetho ezisebenzayo.

Ukunqoba Kwabemithetho Okuvela Ezinkampanini

  • [[QT:0] IVoting Rights Act ka 1965 yaba umphumela oqondile weSelma ukuya kumashayelo eMontgomery kanye nokuzitika kukaMartin Luther King Jr. kanye nezinye.
  • I- AmaMelika anoMthetho wokukhubazeka (1990) adluliswa ngemva kokudluliswa okukhulu kwabashisekeli bamalungelo okukhubazeka, kuhlanganise nokubhikisha kweCapitol Crawl lapho amademoni ashiya khona izihlalo zawo zezihlalo zabakhubazekile ukuze azihudulele izitebhisi zeCapitol.
  • I Ubudlova obumelene nabesifazane Act (1994) yalolongwa yizehlulelo zenhlangano yamalungelo abesifazane ngenxa yokuqaphela ubudlova basekhaya nokuhlasela ngokobulili njengokwephulwa kwamalungelo omphakathi.

Lemithetho inikeza incazelo ecacile eziqinisekisiweni ezingekho emthethweni, ibonisa ukuthi izinhlangano zezenhlalo zibalulekile ekuhumusheni amalungelo avela ezikhunjeni asetshenziswa.

Ukulwa Kwangesikhathi Esidlule Nekusasa Lamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Njengoba kuba khona izinsongo nokungalingani, izinhlangano zomphakathi ziyoqhubeka zihlola imingcele yoMthetho - sisekelo.

Ukuzihlukanisa Kwamanani Nesichibiyelo Sesine

Ukuvela kokuhlola kwemitapo nokwaziswa kuye kwabangela ukumiswa kwamalungelo e-mini eyimfihlo. Carmeter v. United States [2018], iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni kumelwe athole imvume yokuthola ukwaziswa kwendawo yocingo, ukudlulisela iSimemezelo sesine sokuvikela indawo eyimfihlo. Izinhlangano ze-Grasroots ezifana ne-Electronicle Foundation Foundation ziyaqhubeka zisekela izivikelo eziqinile zomuntu siqu, kuhlanganise nemithetho enjenge-American The American Data Acconsial and Protection Act, eyofaka imithetho esemthethweni ngokuphathelene mayelana nokuqoqwa kwemininingwane yemininingwane nokusetshenziswa.

Ukusakaza Amalungelo Ngemva Kwesifunda SaseShelby

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme yonyaka ka-2013 iShelby County v. Hoder yasusa imfuneko yangaphambili yezindawo ngomlando wemithetho yokuvota esemthethweni, iholela ekushicilelweni komthetho wokuvota ovimbelayo. Ngokuphendula, kwavela inhlangano entsha yamalungelo okuvota, isunduzela ukubuyiselwa kwemithetho ye-Voting Rights Act kaJohn Lewis Vocting Regreement Act nenkululeko yo Vote Act. Lenhlangano futhi igxila kumthetho kazwelonke, izinyathelo zokuvota, ibhola, nokuthatha isinyathelo sokuvota, nokukhipha izigwebo ngaphansi komthetho wezwe.

Ukungalingani Kwezomnotho Nomthetho - sisekelo

Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo ungakuhloniphi ngokuqondile ukungalingani kwezomnotho, izinhlangano ezikhuthaza ukukhokhelwa kwemali ephilayo, intela yengcebo, kanye nokunakekelwa kwezempilo yonke ziphikisa ngokuthi ukungalingani okukhulu kululaza ukuthatha isigaba sentando yeningi futhi kuvikela ngokufanayo. Ezinye izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi injongo yokuqala yeSichibiyelo se - 14 yayihlanganisa ukuvikela amalungelo ezomnotho, nakuba izinkantolo ziye zenqaba kakhulu ukuqaphela amalungelo aqondile enhlalakahle. Noma kunjalo, izinhlangano zendawo zokuqasha, ukukhuphulwa kweholo elilinganiselwe, futhi isikweleti siyaqhubeka sihlola imingcele yencazelo yomthetho.

Ukushintsha Kwesimo Sezulu Nobulungisa Bezizukulwane Ezinhlobonhlobo

Abashisekeli abasha baye baveza ukumangalela ngokuthi ukwehluleka kukahulumeni ukwenza ngokushintsha kwesimo sezulu kuphula amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo ngaphansi kwe-The Ad Troughte Clause nemfundiso yomphakathi. Nakuba icala likaJuliana lixoshiwe, ukuhlaziywa okufanayo kuyaqhubeka ezingeni lombuso. Lenhlangano ekugcineni ingaphumelela ekutholeni ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo usikisela ilungelo esimweni sezulu esizinzile, ikakhulukazi njengoba ubufakazi obungokwesayensi bukhula futhi ukuqapha komphakathi.

Isiphetho

Izinhlangano zezenhlalo bezilokhu ziyithonya elibalulekile ekuziphendukeleni kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo nasenkululekoni e-United States. Kusukela kwabanqandi bokuvimbela ukuya ku-octalsststriciations, lezinhlangano ziye zabekela inselele isimo, zishukumisela izinqumo zokwahlulela ezingokomthetho, futhi ziqhubele phambili izinguquko zomthetho ezinikeza ukuphila ezithembisweni zoMthetho-sisekelo. Lenqubo ayiqhubeki njalo. nqubo ingaholela ekuvuselweni kwemizabalazweni futhi iholele ekuhlolweni kwezenzo zobulungu kanye nencazelo yomthetho-mthetho iqinisekisa ukuthi isakhiwo esisunguliwe sihlala siyithuluzi eliphilayo, eliphikiswayo. Njengoba kuphakama izinselele ezintsha, indima yezinhlangano zezenhlalo ekuvikeleni amalungelo omthetho womthetho wezwe neyandisayo ihlala inzima njengakuqala.