ISichibiyelo Seshumi Negunya Lombuso

UMthetho-sisekelo we-United States umisa isimiso esimbaxambili sikahulumeni lapho amandla ehlukaniswa khona phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nezifundazwe. ISichibiyelo sezwe sigcinwe ngokucacile ezindaweni wonke amagunya angaphathiswanga uhulumeni kahulumeni noma enqatshelwe ezwe. Lokhu kuguqulwa kusebenza njengensika yomthetho-mthetho yegunya lezwe ezindaweni eziningi zemithetho, kusukela kwezempilo yomphakathi kuya emthetho omthetho. Imingcele eqondile yombuso omelene nawombuso ivivinywa njalo, ngokuvamile ngomthetho wezwe, ngezenzo zezengameli, nangemithetho yeNkantolo ephakeme. Ukuqonda lezizimpikiswano zangempela zezwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ukuqhuba kwe-hulumeni baseMelika esemthethweni.

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala: Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho Nesenzo Esilawulwayo Seziphazamiso

Isibonelo esivelele kakhulu samanje segunya likahulumeni elimelene nomthetho kahulumeni ukugunyaza insangu. Ngaphansi kwe-gunea Controled Substances Act ka 1970, insangu ihlukaniswa njengeSeplym I, okusho ukuthi inamandla amakhulu okuxhaphaza futhi ayinakusetshenziswa okusemthethweni. Lokhu kwenza ukukhiqizwa, ukwabiwa, nokuba nensangu kube ubugebengu obusemthethweni kahulumeni. Nokho, kusukela kumthetho wenkampane yenkasa yaseCalifornia ngo-19969, inani elikhulayo lemithetho ebekwe ngokumelene ngokuqondile nomthetho kahulumeni.

UColorado waba uhulumeni wokuqala ogunyaza umthetho wokuzilibazisa ngensangu yasetshenziswa abantu abadala ngo-2012, kulandela umvoti we-Obama, iSichibiyelo 64. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, kuhlanganise amazwe angaphezu kwamashumi amabili Washington, i-Oregon, ne California. Lolu hlelo lwezwe lulandele i-"lomthetho. Lolu hlelo lwezwe luye lwadala umsebenzi onzima womthetho. Nakuba umnyango weSishaya- Justicesss ngaphansi kwe-Obama wakhipha i-Cole Memorandum[, eyayala abashushici be-mthetho ukuba bangayiphathisi mithetho eqinile nezimiso eziqinile, i-Athoriccondsssssss (inquisime) ngo-201818. Lokhu kuhlala kuyiqiniso kodwa intensi ye-nkalay iyaqhubeka ukusebenza kweze-yomthetho, ingasebenzi kumthetho, kungayikhothobonga noma yisiphi isimiso somthetho.

Lendaba ibonisa isimo esiyisisekelo: isho ukuthi usebenzisa amandla awo amaphoyisa agciniwe ukulawula impilo nokulondeka phakathi kwemingcele yawo, kuyilapho uhulumeni kahulumeni uphethe igunya elingokomthetho lokulawula ezentengiselwano zasezweni futhi usebenzise imithetho yezidakamizwa. Impi cishe ngeke ixazululwe ngaphandle kwesenzo sobuhlanga ekuvuleni insangu noma iNkantolo Ephakeme enqumeni amandla ezentengiselwano kulokhu. Ukubheka ngokuningiliziwe embhalweni weSimemezelo seTenth nengqophakamiso sayo, i-Cornell Information Information Institute

Imizamo Yokulwela Ukuhlanganisa Izwe NeNkantolo Ephakeme

Ngalé kwensangu, ezinye izifundazwe ziye zazama ukucela iSichibiyelo seshumi ekuqedeni imithetho kahulumeni ngokuphelele. Lemizamo yokuchitha iye yasetshenziswa ezindaweni ezinjenge-Affordal Care Act, iziqondiso zikahulumeni zezikhali, nezindinganiso zendawo ezungezile. Nakuba iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaphikelela ukuthi izikhulu ngeke zingakwazi ukuvala umthetho kahulumeni wezwe (isimiso esiqinisekiswe emacaleni anjenge [[FLT: 0] Coper v. Aaron]), lezinselele ezingokomfanekiso nezomthetho ziphoqelele uhulumeni wezwe ukuba ulwe ngokuphindaphindiwe. Ukubekwa kwemithetho engokomthetho negunya kulokhu kuphinde kuphinde kuphinde kushiwo kukhulu kuMelika.

Igunya Likahulumeni Nenhlangano Kahulumeni

Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi sinikeza inkululeko ebanzi, u-Claus eSigqemeni VI soMthetho-sisekelo umisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe. Uma imithetho kahulumeni nohulumeni uphikisana, umthetho kahulumeni uyakwazi ukumelana, uma nje ungaphakathi kwamandla ahlukanisayo eSishayamthetho. Lemfundiso ibekwe emongweni wezwe, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni zokufuduka, lapho uhulumeni wezwe unegunya lokulawula imvelo nomngcele.

Ukuhlolwa kwecala: Ukufuduka nokuthutha kwe-SB 1070 yase-Arizona

Ngo-2010, i-Arizona yamisa SB 1070, umthetho wezwe ogcwele oklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukufuduka okungekho emthethweni ngokufuna amaphoyisa ukuba ahlole isimo sabantu abathuthwayo uma bekhona ukusola okunengqondo ukuthi lowo muntu ukhona ezweni ngokungekho emthethweni. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuthi umthetho wawudingekile ngoba uhulumeni wezwe uhlulekile ukumisa imithetho yokufuduka ngokwaneleyo. Abaphikisi basekela ukuthi ukuthunyelwa kwabantu kwamanye amazwe kungumthwalo wemfanelo womthetho ongokomthetho kuphela nokuthi umthetho uyokwenza ukuba abantu baphumele ezindaweni ezithile futhi uholele ekulweni kwezinhlanga futhi kungquzuleni okungokomthetho.

Icala lafinyelela eNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. ngo-2012 ku-Arizona v. United States. Inkantolo yakhipha izivumelwano ezintathu kwezine eziphikisiwe, iphethe ukuthi i-Arizona yayingenamthetho ezweni likahulumeni. Imithetho kahulumeni yanquma ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni ayinakwenza imithetho ehlukene ephikisana nomthetho kazwelonke. Nokho, iNkantolo yavumela ukuba "kuveze ilungiselelo lakho" lime, nakuba yaxwayisa ngokuthi ingaphinde ibekelwe inselelwe kwezinye izizathu. Lesinqumo saphinde sifake isigaba sikahulumeni endaweni yokufuduka lapho ishiya igumbi lesifundazwe ukuze ixhumane kwezinye izici. Umbono ungathi ufunde kumthetho

Imiphumela ye Arizona v. United States ayiyiqedanga imizamo kahulumeni. Izimo eziningi ziye zadlula [ idolobha eliqashelwe [ izinhlelo ezilinganisela ukubambisana neziphathimandla zezezokufuduka zikahulumeni, kuyilapho ezinye, njengeTexas, ziye zamisa imithetho ephoqelela ukugcinwa komthetho wendawo ukuba usize. Lemiba iyaqhubeka ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, iqinisekisa ubunzima bokudweba imigqa ehlanzekile phakathi kombuso nombuso kahulumeni esimisweni esiklanyelwe ukubusa.

Ukwehliswa Kwendawo Ezungezile

Ukufakwa kwe-information akuyona kuphela indawo lapho igunya likahulumeni lilawula khona umthetho wezwe. Ukulawula indawo ezungezile kungenye inkambiso egcwele izingxabano zokuhlenga. I-Esply Air Act ivumela i-Nvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) ukuba ibeke izindinganiso zobukhazikhazikhazikhazi ze-mo-yo yezwe, kodwa amazwe anomthwalo wokuyisebenzisa ngokuhlela izicwangciso zikahulumeni. Nokho, iCalifornia iphethe i-computer ekhethekile yokuhlela izindinganiso zayo eziqinile zokukhipha imoto phakathi kwe-Daiemouse [airveter arvoirerder shosho iNkanto esebenzela iNkantolo ephakeme. Ikhono likahulumeni wombuso lokulawula i-Scourage isebenza kaningi.

Izimo Ezibucayi Nokungenela Kweqembu

Kunezimo eziphuthumayo .Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izinhlekelele ezingokwemvelo, izinkinga zempilo yomphakathi, noma ukusongelwa kwezentengiselwano, kungashintsha ngokuphawulekayo. Uhulumeni kahulumeni uphethe unemithombo negunya okuthi akunalutho, kodwa umthwalo wemfanelo wokuqala wokusabela uvela kuhulumeni nohulumeni bendawo ngaphansi koMthetho . Lesi simiso singaholela ekuxabaniseni uma amathemba ehluka ngesivinini noma izinga losizo lwezwe.

Ukuhlolwa Kwendaba: ISiphepho uKatrina (2005)

ISiphepho uKatrina, esahlasela iGulf Coast ngoAugust 2005, sisengomunye wemifanekiso enamandla kakhulu yobunzima bobuzwe enhlekeleleni. Isiphepho sabhubhisa iNew Orleans nezindawo ezizungezile, amandla amakhulu kahulumeni nezindawo zokusabela. I-Federal Emergency Management Agency Agency (FEMA) yasebenzisa imithombo nezisebenzi, kodwa ukusabela kwagxekwa kakhulu njengokuthatha kancane, okungabekezelelwe, nokunganele. Izikhulu zikahulumeni, kuhlanganise noMbusi waseLouisiana Kathleen Blanto, zaveza ukukhungathekiswa kwemizamo kahulumeni, kuyilapho izikhulu zikahulumeni zikhomba izicelo zokungacacile noma ukulibala.

Uphenyo lwengqungquthela eyalandela lwathola ukuthi wonke amazinga kahulumeni ahlulekile ukubambisana ngokuphumelelayo. Umphumela waholela ekushintsheni phakathi kwe-FEMA ne-National Response Framework, kodwa inhlekelele yagcizelela ukucindezeleka okukhulu: uhulumeni wezwe unamandla okuphendula, kodwa izifunda zilawula izimiso zokulawula isimo esiphuthumayo zasemhlabeni. FEMA] profile yenhlekelele inikeza imininingwane yempendulo nezifundo zikahulumeni.

Ngokuphambene, ukusabela ku- u-Hurricane Sandy ngo-2012 kwabona ukubambisana kukahulumeni nesifundazwe okuphumelela kakhulu, nakuba izimpikiswano ngokuhlelwa kwemali zaqhubeka. Lezi zibonelo zibonisa ukuthi izimo ezibucayi zivame ukuvivinya ukunwebeka kwesimiso sikahulumeni ngezindlela ezingalindelekile.

Izinhlangano Zempilo Yomphakathi Ne - COVID - 19 Pandemic

Muva nje, umqedazwe we-COVID-19 waqokomisa ukuhlukana kwemithetho yaseMelika. Uhulumeni wezwe, nge-Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) nangoMnyango Wezempilo Nezinkonzo Zomuntu, wakhipha isiqondiso sokufihla, ukuhlola, nokugoma. Kodwa imibuso yazenzela izinqumo zayo ngokuvala, ukuvala isikole, nokugunyaza izikhundla. Abaphathi bezindawo ezithile bakhipha iziyalezo zezikhulu eziphikisana nemithetho yendawo kamasipala, ukwakha umsebenzi owenziwe ngemithetho eqinile. Inkantolo ephakeme yahlola izinselele zokususa i-morlium nezokugoma, iqinisekisa umqondo wokuthi nakuba uhulumeni uhulumeni ungenza umsebenzi ophuthumayo, kumelwe uhloniphe imingcele yemibuso yawo ecacile. I-Hulumendssss futhi ayibonisi futhi ayikholeki imvume yokulawula umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho.

Ukulawulwa Kwemfundo Nombuso

Imfundo iyinto engokwesiko egcinelwe izifundazwe, njengoba ingashiwo kuMthetho-sisekelo. Isichibiyeli seshumi sishiyela isimiso semfundo kakhulu kuhulumeni wesishaya-mthetho namabhodi esikole sendawo. Nokho, uhulumeni wezwe uye wawasebenzisa kakhulu amandla awo okusebenzisa kanye ne iCommerce Clause ukuthonya izindinganiso zemfundo, okuholela ekungqubaniseni nokulawula nokulandisa.

Ukuhlolwa Kwecala: Akukho Mntanakhe Osele Nemiphumela Yayo

Idlula ngo-2001 ngokusekela okunamandla kwe-bipartisan, Akukho mntwana Oshiyelwe Kumthetho (NCLB) yamelela ukungenela okunamandla kakhulu kukahulumeni emfundweni kuze kube manje. Kwadingeka ukuba kusungulwe izilinganiso ezivamile, kubekwe izimpoqo, futhi kuboniswe "intuthuko eyanele yaminyaka yonke" kuwo wonke amaqembu angaphansi abafundi. Izikole ezahluleka ukuhlangabezana nezisulu ezibhekene nezijeziso ezibhekene nezijeziso, kuhlanganise nokuhlelwa kabusha kwesihloko sezentengiselwano kazwe I. Nakuba kugcinwa izimemezelo zokulawula uhlelo lwezifundo nothisha, NCLB i-cB emisiwe ukulandisa ukulandisa komthetho okubheka abafundi abaningi njengenqikaza okukhulu.

Ngasekupheleni konyaka ka- 2000, inani elandayo lezifundazwe nothisha laphikisa ngokuthi izimfuneko ze-NCLB zazingaqinisekile futhi ziwubuphunguzi. I-Obama yaphendula i-Top, uhlelo oluncintisanayo olukhuthaza ukuba isebenzise izindinganiso zekoliji kanye nomsebenzi ophambili (njengekhorali Elivamile) futhi ihlole othisha abasekelwe ekuhlolweni kwabafundi abaningi. Amazwe amelana nokulahlekelwa amandla kahulumeni [[FLT]] [amandla okusebenzisa imali abagxeki ababethiwa anele ukuba asebenzise amandla okusebenzisa imali.

Ngo-2015, uMkhandlu wathatha indawo ye-NCLB nge- Wonke umFundi Wempumelelo Act (ESSA), owabuyisela igunya elikhulu kuhulumeni. I-ESSA igcina izimfuneko zikahulumeni zokuhlola kodwa uvumela izigaba ukuba zimise imigomo yazo, zihlele izimiso zabo zokuziphendulela, futhi zinqume ukuthi zingangenela kanjani ezikoleni eziphansi. Lo shintsho lubonisa ukujijeka phakathi kobuphathi nomthetho olawulayo nombuso. Umnyango wemfundo [FLT:] uchaza isimo sezeluleko lwamanje.

Ukulawulwa KukaHulumeni Ngokumelene Namalungelo Omphakathi

Ngaphandle kokulandisa, isimiso semfundo sihlangene futhi nokugcinwa kwamalungelo omphakathi. Uhulumeni kahulumeni unegunya lokuvimba ukuxhasa izikole ezikhetha uhlanga, ubulili, noma ukukhubazeka, ngaphansi kwemithetho enjengethi Thit VI, i-Title IX, nethi Aforence Digitation Act (IEA). Nakuba izifundazwe zilawula izimiso zazo zesikole zomphakathi, kumelwe zivumelane nalezi zimfuneko zikahulumeni zokuqhubeka zithola izimali zikahulumeni. Lokhu kuye kwaba umthombo wesici esinzima, ikakhulukazi ezimweni ezihilela amalungelo abafundi abakhubazekile noma isikole sokuzijezisa. Ikhono likahulumeni wezwe lokunikeza inzuzo esazi "impaka amandla""" njengethuluzi elinamandla lokuthonya ukuziphatha, kodwa iNkakhulu inkantolo iphethe ukuthi izimo kumelwe zikhululeke futhi zihlobene nenzalo yombuso.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Negunya Lokuphoqelelwa Kwamalungelo Esizwe

Ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi ngokomlando kuye kwadinga ukungenela okunamandla kukahulumeni ukuze kunqotshwe ukucwasana kwezwe. Ngaphambi kweMpi Yombango, imibuso yaqinisekisa ilungelo lokunquma ukuba izakhamuzi futhi ikhiphe ubandlululo lwezinhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso "yamalungelo esizwe" i-Conformationon Reformationmentation (i-Thitreenth, 1450, ne-15) kanye nomthetho kahulumeni owalandela ngokuyisisekelo waphazamisa ukulinganisela kwezwe, okwenza uhulumeni wesizwe ubophezele imibuso ukuba inqande inqubo efanayo nefanele.

Isifundo Sendaba: Brown v. Board of Education and School Dese Convation

Icala leNkantolo ePhakeme ngo 1954 Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka iyisibonelo esiyinhloko segunya likahulumeni elilawula umthetho kahulumeni ukuba uqinisekise amalungelo omthetho-siseko. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi imithetho enquma ukumiswa kwezikole zomphakathi ezihlukene kubafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe. Lesinqumo saphula iSivikelo sika Claus eSingenisweni seGajijithe. Lesinqumo ngokuqondile silawula "Sibe se-ful kodwa silingana" nemfundiso esungulwe ngo-18966 [[FL:] PT].[FLT:[FLT] [12]].. Umbhalo ogcwele we [FLT:] BBN[FFLD]

Naphezu kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme, amazwe amaningi aseNingizimu amelana nokuhlaziywa iminyaka eminingi. Abanye ababusi, njengo-Orval Faubus wase-Arkansas, bathumela i-National Guard ukuze bavimbele abafundi abansundu ukuba bangangeni kuzo zonke izikole ezimhlophe. UMongameli Dwight D. Eisenhower wasabela ngokugunyaza i-Arkansas National Guard futhi athumele amabutho e-U.S. amabutho ayisishiyagamu ukuba aphelelise abafundi eLittle Rock Central High School. Le mpikiswano yabonisa ngamandla ukuthi igunya lezwe elinguhulumeni liphazanyiswe yizikole zempi yezempi, kodwa lisetshenziswa ukuphoqelela amalungelo omthetho lapho amazwe enqaba ukuhambisana.

Ukuphoqelelwa Kwesimiso Sanamuhla: Ukusakaza Amalungelo Nokuzinza

Enkathini yanamuhla, uMthetho we-Voting Rights ka-1965 wanika uhulumeni omkhulu igunya lokungenela emithethweni yokukhetha yombuso, ikakhulukazi ezikhundleni eziphetheyo ezinomlando wobandlululo lobuhlanga. Ingxenye 5 yalesi senzo esidinga amazwe athile nezindawo ukuthola "umbukiso" ku-U.S. uMnyango wobulungisa ngaphambi kokwenza noma iziphi izinguquko emithethweni yawo yokuvota. Le lungiselelo laliwukungenela okubalulekile ebukhosini, kodwa lalithethelelwa yisithakazelo esiphoqelelekile ekuvikeleni amalungelo okuvota amancane.

Nokho, ecaleni lika-2013 i-Shelby County v.Hander , iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhipha indlela esetshenziselwa ukunquma ukuthi iziphi izikhundla ezazingabekwa phambili, iphikisa ngokuthi indlela yokuhlanganisa yaphelelwa isikhathi. INkantolo ayizange iqede indlela yokuhlela ngokwayo, kodwa ngaphandle kwendlela elungisiwe, isiqephu 5 asibangenzeki. Lesinqumo sashintsha amandla abuyela emuva emazweni, siwavumele ukuba amukele imithetho ye-ovhoti, akhiphe i-roll, futhi ashintshe izinqubo zokuvota ngaphambi kokuba kuvunyelwe uhulumeni. Ukuphendula, i-Callsssss iye yahluleka ukudlulisa umthetho omusha ukuze ibuyiselwe indawo, ishiya ukulinganisela okulinganiselwe kwegunyazwe embusweni. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo eqhubekayo emayelana nokuncintisayo yelungelo le-octivery.

Isiphetho: Impikiswano Eqhubekayo

Izibonelo ezixoxwe ngakho---------kugunyaza ngokomthetho nokugcinwa kwezensangu nokuthunyelwa kwezindawo nokusabela kwenhlekelele namalungelo omphakathi − zibonisa ukuthi ubuhlobo phakathi kwezwe negunya likahulumeni abukho obungami. Buhlala bubunjwe umthetho, izahlulelo, izenzo zokuphatha, nezinkulu zezombangazwe eziguquguqukayo. ISiphendu seshumi neSupremacy Claus imelela izimpawu zobubanzi; umkhuba wangempela wezwe usebenza phakathi, futhi amazwe asebenza njengezindawo zokucwaninga ngedemokramente kanye nohulumeni ophethe izindinganiso ezifanayo uma kudingekile.

Ukuqonda lezi zimiso kubalulekile kunoma ubani ohileleke ekubuseni kweMelika. Ukulinganisela kwamandla akusoze kwaxazululwa ekugcineni; kushintshashintsha ngempikiswano ngayinye entsha yenqubo, inselele yomthetho-sisekelo, nenhlekelele. Othisha, abakhi bezimiso, nezakhamuzi ngokufanayo kumelwe bahlale beqaphela indlela la mandla alawula ngayo isimo esingokomthetho nesezombangazwe sesizwe. Ikusasa lobuhulumeni liyoxhomeka ekutheni isimiso sobuzwe sizozivumelanisa kahle kangakanani nezinselele ezivelayo ($6) ekushintsheni kwezesayensi, ukushintsha kwendawo ezungezile, impilo yomphakathi, noma amalungelo omphakathi (ukulondoloza izimiso eziyisisekelo zombuso wezwe) eziye zaqondisa isizwe kusukela ekusungulweni kwaso.