Umthetho uyindlela yokuchaza i-productal uLingulism ochaza uMthetho-sisekelo osekelwe ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni ngesikhathi owathathwa ngaso. Lokhu kugcizelela ukubaluleka kokunamathela encazelweni yokuqala yombhalo, kunokuba uwuchaze ngezindinganiso zanamuhla noma imibono. Njengendlela yokuchaza umthetho-sisekelo, i-productionism iye yaguqula kabusha isimo sendawo yaseMelika yejurispridence, ingena phambili emsebenzini wezazi nabahluleli abaphikisayo ukuthi ukwethembeka encwadini kudinga isibopho sencazelo yayo emisiwe kunemvume emisiwe yekhono lokwahlulela. Ifilosofi isebenza ekwazisweni okuthi uMthetho-Calticism / , njengethuluzi eligunyaziwe, eligunyaza ukusungula kwayo, elingagunyazinziswa, kodwa eligunyaza ukuthuthukisa izinhlelo zayo ngokokwakhokhwa kwalo. Lenhlangano yengqondo iye yabangela ukuphikisana okukhulu ezikolweni zomthetho, izinkantolo ze-gudume, futhi yenza noma yiziphi izinkulumo ezibaluleke kakhulu zomthetho eziwumthetho ezingokomthetho zomfundi ezingokomthetho zanamuhla.

Ukuqonda Ukudalula

Umthetho woqobo ufuna ukulondoloza injongo yabahleli bomthetho ngokwawo, uqinisekisa ukuthi imingcele yamandla kahulumeni ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuthi leyo mingcele iyoshintshana nesimiso esisha sokwahlulela noma ukuthambekela kwezombangazwe. Ngalendlela, ukuqina akuyona nje inzuzo engabonakali; kusekela umthetho ngokwawo, kuqinisekisa ukuthi izakhamuzi nabenzi bomthetho bangaqonda imingcele engokomthetho-sisekelo yamandla kahulumeni ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuthi leyo mingcele izoshintsha ngokumiswa komthetho noma ukuthambekela kwezombangazwe okusha.

Isisekelo Esingokomlando

Imisuka yokuqala ye-Forstism ingalandelelwa enkathini yokusungulwa ngokwayo. Ama-framers nama-ratifiers baqonda uMthetho-sisekelo njengencwadi ebhalwe ukuthi incazelo yawo imiswe yimibhalo nezinhloso zabalobi bawo. [[FLT:] uFederal].[Flut]][Folt:1].[3] UJames Madison waphawula ukubaluleka "indinganiso oluvamile" ukuxazulula ukungavumelani ngencazelo engokomthetho, nakuba ekuqaleni kweNkantolo yeNkantolo ebekwe phambili yayimiswe ngezindlela ze-marbury v.[FLT][FLT] [FLT] [FLT] uqinisekisa indima ye-judiary' ekuchazeni umthetho-mthetho ngokwezime ngokwezimo zawo ezisobala kakhulu, lapho umqulu wokuqala we-Anstrustonstone efuna khona kuvela khona umqalistmy.

Amakhorali

I-lignationalism isekelwe ezibophweni eziningana eziyisisekelo. Okokuqala, isekela ukuthi incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo inqunyiwe ngesikhathi sokutholakaliswa kwemithetho. (-) ukuthi umbhalo osho ukuthini kulabo abawuthathayo uhlala usho ukuthini namuhla ngaphandle kokuba uMthetho-sisekelo ulungiswe ngokusemthethweni ngezimiso V. Okwesibili, igomela ukuthi amajaji abophekile ukusebenzisa leyo ncazelo eqinisekile kungakhathaliseki ukuthi bayavumelana yini nemiphumela. Okwesithathu, ukuvumelana komthetho ngokomthetho kulahla umqondo wokuthi amalungiselelo oMthetho-sisekelo kufanele avele ngencazelo yokwahlulela ukuze abonise izinkolelo-zeluleko lwezenhlalo, kunalokho avume ukuthi ushintsho lwenguquko kumele lufike ngenqubo yokulungisa noma ngokuhlela idemocrali phakathi kwemingcele emiswe yimibhalo emisiwe. Lemithetho yokwahlulela, yenza inqubo yokuqala yokulawula imingcele yokulawula izinkantolo ukuze ibeke izindinganiso zesizwe. Kuyinqubo engokomthetho esemthethweni engokomthetho, kuvumelana nezinqunyweni kanye nezimiso ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho.

Izinhlobo Zokukholelwa KuNkulunkulu Kwasekuqaleni

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, inkolelo-mbono yesiqalo yahlukene yaba izikole ezihlukene zemibono. Ngokuphawulekayo injongo yokuqala nencazelo yokuqala. Nganye inikeza indlela ehlukile yokubona okuqukethwe nguMthetho-sisekelo omisiwe, futhi umehluko phakathi kwazo unemiphumela ebalulekile ekucupheni kokwahlulela nengxoxo yezazi.

Ukuzimisela Kwangaphambili

Inhloso yokuqala igxila kulokho abahleli abahlose ukukwenza i-Galph. Lendlela, exhaswe yi-professionsst astrist enjengoRobert Bork, ibheka ezinhloso zabo siqu bababhali bencwadi − ikakhulukazi izihambeli ze-Constitution of the Convention ka 1787(ukuxazulula izinhloso zomthetho-mgamu womthetho-sisekelo womthetho-sisekelo. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuthi ngenxa yokuthi abadwebi babengabaklami besimiso somthetho-mthetho, izinjongo zabo eziyisisekelo kufanele ziqondise. Abagxeki, nakuba kunjalo, baye bakhomba izinkinga ezingathi sína ngale ndlela: ngokuvamile kunzima ukuveza izinhloso zeqembu elilodwa phakathi kwemidathane eyayinemibono ehlukene; ibeka izingozi ezinhloso zeqembu elincane labamhlophe eliphezulu elibanzi elinomphakathi; ingaba nokwenziwa yimibuzo encipheni encipheni ngezinkinga ezikhona ngokuphathelene kakhulu.

Incazelo Yokuqala

Incazelo yokuqala . .Nkathi zibizwa ngokuthi "incazelo yomphakathi yasekuqaleni" . "umScalia usho umbhalo njengoba uqondwa umphakathi ngesikhathi sokuhlungwa. Kunokuba ubuze ngezinhloso ezingokwesiko ze-flames, lendlela ibuza ukuthi umuntu onengqondo esikhathini sokuqalisa wayeyowuqonda kanjani umbhalo wemithetho-sisekelo. UMahluleli Scalia wayengoyena ovelele kakhulu ekulweleni lo mbhalo, futhi uye waba ukwakheka okuvelele kwendlela yokulawula efundeni ngokwasemthethweni. Ukusuka ezinhlosoni zenjongo yokuchaza kwakushukunyiswa ukuqaphela ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo, njengencwadi ebhaliwe, uthola igunya lawo esimweni sokwakha abantu abanegunya lobukhosi babo. Ngakho, yilokho okuqondwa yilokho labo abanike amandla angokomthetho angoko ngokomthetho. (5) ngezizathu eziqondiswe izivumelwano zezezezeluleko zenjongo yolimi. Imithombo yolimi engokomthetho ehlelilena, ezama ukuzwa ngemithombo yomphakathi, futhi imithombo engokomthetho engokomthetho, enikeza izinhloso engokomthetho, ewuhlakalweni, ewuhlakala nangezinye yemithombo, engokomthetho.

Ukusetshenziswa Ezinkantolo Zanamuhla

I-Scaliaism iye yaba nethonya ezimpikiswaneni zomthetho zamanje, ikakhulukazi ezicaleni zomthetho-sisekelo. Abanye abahluleli baphikisa ngokuthi kunikeza isisekelo esicacile sokuchaza umthetho, kuyilapho abagxeki bethi ungaqina kakhulu noma uphelelwe isikhathi. Kusukela ekuqinisekisweni kukaMahluleli uScalisa ngo 1986, ukucabanga kokuqala kuye kwavela ezinhlamvwini eziningi zemibono yeNkantolo Ephakeme − kusukela eSivumelwaneni Sesibili ukuya enqubweni yomthetho ukuya enqubeni yezemthetho kumthetho (* futhi iye yazuza amandla engeziwe ngokumiswa kukaMahluleli Clarence Thomas, uMahluleli uNeil Gormoth, uMahluleli uBretavaugh, noMahluleli u-Amy Contey Barrettlett, ngamunye oyettlet oye waveza izilinganiso ezindleleni zokuqala zomthetho wokuqala. Ithonya leNkathi yempikiswa ukuba izikhulu zezelele ezinkantolo zesizwe eziphansi, lapho abahluleli benzile izigi zeze ukusekela komthetho ezingokomthetho eziphambili.

Izinqumo Zokuqala Zesazi Somlando

Izinqumo eziningi zeNkantolo Ephakeme zibonisa ukusebenza kwendlela yokusebenza ye-BFton. [[FLT:] Kuyi-digrion of Columbia v. Heller (2008), iNkantolo yakholelwa ukuthi iSiphendulo Sesibili sivikela ilungelo lomuntu lokuba nezikhali zokuzigcina uqobo lwezinqano, ukuthembela kakhulu eziqondene nomphakathi wokuqala wombhalo njengoba kuqondwa ngo-1791. Icebo lokusungula i-Plainstion (2008), i-divolution, i-dictionration, nencazelo kususelwa kwezazi ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho, ngokusebenzisa inselele inselele inselele izihloko zesikhathi esiphansi zeNkakhulu, i-NewF. Ngokunjalo izifunda zezifundazwe lesibili lezifundazwe. [Fognsttontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontontonton, ilawula izinhlelo ze-'i 10:10] izifunda ze-Equaton (ielimi ye-Ezikhulu lesiZwe lesiZwe, i-Ezikhulu

Abasekeli Abaphawulekayo EJudia

Phakathi kwabantu abavelele kakhulu emzabalazweni wobuProfethi bokuqala uMahluleli uAntonin Scalia noClarence Thomas, omsebenzi wakhe uye wenza ngaphezu kwanoma yibaphi abanye abahluleli ukuba uguqulele ekusungulweni komthetho - sisekelo.

UMahluleli u-Antonin Scalia, owakhonza eNkantolo Ephakeme kusukela ngo-1986 kuze kube sekufeni kwakhe ngo-2016, wayengumsekeli obonakalayo novelele wenguquko emlandweni waseMelika. Imibono yakhe − kokubili ngeNkantolo futhi engavumelani − yasebenzisa ngokungaguquki incazelo yokuqala yomthetho-sisekelo, ngokuvamile eqonde kakhulu futhi ephikelelayo ekuthembekeni kwemibhalo egciniwe. Ngo-1997 uTanner Lectures ePrinton University, Scalia wahlukanisa phakathi "kwenjongo yokuqala" kanye "nenhloso yokuqala, waveza ukuthi leyo yokuqala yayiyisisekelo esingokomthetho somthetho womthetho. Wayengaqondi ukuthi ukuchaza kokuqala okungokomthetho kodwa kwakuyindlela yokuzilawula evimbela ukuba abahluleli ekubekeni izintando zakhe siqu. Sctaliah wandisa ithonya lakhe elingaphezulu kakhulu kunemibono yakhe; futhi waguqula ukuphikisa kwenkulumo yenkulumo yenkulumo engekhona eqeqeshile, ngisho nakuphikisa komthetho, ngisho nakuchaza ngombhalo wakhe. Phambi kokuba akwenzele uMkhamu.

UMahluleli uClarence Thomas, owajoyina iNkantolo yasekuqaleni ngo-1991, uye waqhubekela phambili umsebenzi we-Ceast. Nakuba uScalia ngezinye izikhathi ayeka ukulandela ukucabanga kwasekuqaleni eziphethweni zakhe ezinamandla kakhulu, uThomas ubelokhu ezimisele ukuphinde aphinde alandele izilinganiso ezimisiwe eziphikisana nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni. Ezimweni ezihilela ukulawulwa kwezwe, i-Chomaskomment Claus, i-Monamentmentation, ne-Mastionstionstion, kanye ne-Immunionstions Claus, uThomas Thomas ulwe nezincazelo ezisuka eqenjini yeNkade kodwa ukholelwa ukuthi uphonswe ngencazelo engokomthetho we-Celmassion noma ngokunciphisamukeleka kwezente yomthetho we-Claus. Umthetho wakhe oyinhloko we-E. U-Thomston umninimandla u-E.

Ngaphezu kweNkantolo Ephakeme, i-ronastism inezisekelo eziqinile phakathi kwejaji likazwelonke. Umahluleli uFrank Easterbrook weSifunda sesikhombisa uthatha imibono ebalulekile engokomthetho-mthetho futhi uyichaze nge-lens yencazelo yokuqala yomphakathi, iphatha ukubhalwa kwemibhalo neyokuqala njengezindlela ezihlobene kakhulu. Umahluleli William Pryor weSigorith neJaji uJeffrey Sutton leSigoricle elibhaliwe futhi linemibono ebalulekile engokomthetho wezwe elisukela ezindaweni ezihlangene ukuya ezinhlanganweni zomthetho. Ithonya lokuqala lihlanganiswe ukumiswa kwabahluleli bokuqala ababe nengxenye ekuthatheni ibhandeni kwebhentshi yokuqala, abaningi bezazi zabo zezomthetho wokuqala noma abafunde ngaphansi kwezazi zokuqala. Lokhu kudluliselwa kwendlela yokuqala yesayensi yesayensi yesayensi yezomthetho kuqinisekisa ukuthi ifilosofi iqhubeke ukumiswa kwamashumi eminyaka eMelika.

Ukugxekwa Nezinselele

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuthatha isisekelo ngokuqinile kungashalazela izinguquko zomphakathi nezimiso eziguquguqukayo. Basikisela ukuthi indlela evumelanayo ivumela izinkantolo ukuba zichaze uMthetho-sisekelo ngendlela ebonisa izindinganiso zamanje nezidingo. Lokhu kugxeka kuthatha izindlela eziningi futhi kubekela inselele ukuguqulwa kokuqala kokubili ngezizathu ezicatshangelwayo neziwusizo. Abagxeki baphikisa kakhulu ekutheni isizukulwane esisungulayo (8) esinezigqila, esinabantu abangafuni ilungelo lokuvota, futhi esilinganiselwe kwezombangazwe sokuhlanganyela empahleni emadodani amhlophe ayesenawo amakhulu eminyaka alandela. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukubophela komthetho ekuqondeni ukuthi ingcaciso yobandlululo lwakudala nokwenqanda ibhulo lwencwadi esebenzela umphakathi wamanje.

UMthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo Ungathatha Isabelo

Okungathathelwa phambili kakhulu ekudaleni yi- "Constitution" indlela ebanzi, ephethe ukuthi incazelo yomthetho-sisekelo ishintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ngencazelo yokwahlulela. Abasekeli abanjengoMahluleli William Brennan noMahluleli uStephen Breyer baye baphikisa ngokuthi amabinzana abanzi eSivumelwano ("isivikelo esilinganayo,""inqubo,""""isijeziso esingavamile"'inziwa'''''''''isilinganiso esiklanywe ngokwezindinganiso ezifanele abahluleli abamele ukuhlelwa izindinganiso zamanje. Umthetho udweba u-Rekhothathspital u-e. [FFF][3][4], u-Fomston, u-Esakhelwayo, u-Aston, "[10][19][10] futhi umqulu i-Esakhesahlulogogogo.[19][10][4], i-Esterogconst , i-Assuption:[F][F][11][10], i-Es,

Abaqondisi bemvelaphi yemvelo baye basabela kulenselele ngezindlela eziningi. Abanye, njengoMahluleli Scalia, baphikisa ngokuthi Brown bangalunganiswa ngezizathu zakuqala ngoba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwe-Momeal Protection Claus uClaus kwakuphikisana nokuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga okulawulwa uhulumeni. Abanye, kuhlanganise noMahluleli uThomas, baye bavuma ukuthi ubuShomasm bungafuna ukulahla ezinye izimo ezithandwayo kodwa buye bagodla ukuthi lokhu kuyintengo yomthetho - sisekelo ofaka uhulumeni esikhundleni somthetho kunokuba ube ngomthetho. Impikiswano phakathi kobuKhosi bokuqala nomthetho womthetho womthetho ihlala ingena ingena, futhi iyaqhubeka ukubumba impikiswano engcono kakhulu emthethweni waseMelika (ihlanganisa nelungelo lokukhipha izibhamu, inkululeko nenkululeko yezempathilo.) engxenye enkulu yesivumelwano semithetho yomphakathi ebhalwe phakathi kwabantu abamele ibonise ukuvumelana kwezimiso zomthetho wombuso.

Imibono Ewusizo Neyifilosofi

Ngaphandle kokuphikisana nomthetho-sisekelo ophilayo, ubuShona buye babhekana nochungechunge lokugxeka okuqondile okuvela ezifundweni ezibuza ukuthi inganikeza izithembiso zayo yini. Okunye ukuphikisa kugxila ebunzimeni obusebenzayo bokuthola incazelo yasekuqaleni. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi umlando uvame ukuhlukana, udida, noma ukuphikisana, okwenza kube nzima ukuveza incazelo eyodwa, evimbelayo emithethweni eminingi engokomthetho. Inkathi yokusungulwa yayiyisikhathi sempikiswano eqinile yezombangazwe, futhi amaMelika ayenemibono ehlukene kakhulu ngencazelo yoMthetho-sisekelo kusukela ekuqaleni. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi abakholelwa ekuqaleni baphoqelelwe ukuba basekele ubufakazi obungoko bomlando obusekela imiphumela yabo ethandwayo, umkhuba owehlisa ukuzisholo ukuthi ukuvinjelwa komthetho.

Uhide lwesibili lokugxeka luphikisa izisekelo ezivamile ze-reatrim. Kungani kufanele siboshwe imibono yabantu abaphila emakhulwini amabili eminyaka adlule? Le mpikiswano "efile" ibuza ilungelo lokuvumela isizukulwane sakudala ukulawula inkathi yamanje. Osolulwelwe yikho kuwe ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo wasetshenziswa ngezimiso zentando yeningi (‘ukwakhiwa kwemihlangano ethandwayo ) futhi igunya lawo eliqhubekayo lisekelwe emvumeni yezizukulwane ezilandelayo ezikhethe ukungayiqedisi. Baphikisa futhi ukuthi inkinga yesandla esifile asiyona ekwakheni kobukhombana; noma iyiphi indlela ephatha uMthetho-sisekelo wezomthetho njengomthetho owenziwe esikhathini esidlule. Umbuzo awukho [FLD] [FLD] [FF] [2]

Isenqabela sesithathu siphakamisa inkinga yesiqalo. Isibopho sokuqala sokuzimisela ukuveza incazelo eqondile sibonakala singqubuzana nemfundiso ye ye-dicisis, ephethe ukuthi izinkantolo kufanele zilandele izinqumo zangaphambili ngisho noma zinqunywe ngokungeyikho. Ingaba umahluleli owesiqalo owenkathi yokuqala owehlelayo osuka ekuqondeni kwakuqala? njengoJaji Thomas, ubezimisele ukulawula noma ukubiza izimpawu ezithathe isikhathi eside ezithi zibhekene nencazelo yomthetho. Abanye, kuhlanganise noMahluleli noJastie Barrett, baye baphikisa ngokuthi ismestristries [FLT.Foct:] ezindaweni eziphambili noma eziphambili, i-FLT.[FTLT][FFM] Izimiso ezisekelayokuhlala isikhathi eside kodwa ezivikela inzuzo ezihlala zihleli kakhulu phakathi kwezindawo eziphambili. ISiphakathi sezente, ikakhulukazi ingundandandandandanda ezindaweni eziphambili, futhi eziwuphikiswa kakhulu, eziwuphikiswa kakhulu.

Ukulinganisela Ukuqamba Amathuku Nezindinganiso Zanamuhla

Kusendleleni, izinkantolo zivame ukusebenzisa ukuphikisana phakathi kobuqalo nezindinganiso zanamuhla ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene zokuchaza. Abanye abahluleli bamukela indlela "yobupringi" ebheka incazelo yokuqala njengesici esisodwa phakathi kwabaningi, kanye nokwesibonelo, ukucabanga okulandelanayo, kanye nezimiso ezivumelanayo zomphakathi. Abanye basebenzisa "izindlela zakuqala zokuqala zobu mbhali," ezizama ukusungula izindlela zokuchaza isizukulwane ngokwaso esizozisebenzisa, kuhlanganise nendlela yokuthatha iziqondiso, ukuqhathanisa, kanye nokungalingani. Abanye baveza umehluko phakathi komthetho-sisekelo "ukuchaza" (ukuveza incazelo emisiwe yombhalo) kanye "ukuhlela"" (ukubonisa lokho okushiwoyo ezimweni eziqondileyo, okungase kudingenze ukusetshenziswa kwezahlule phakathi kwemingcele ebekwe ngokwezincazelo). Lokhu kuvezwe yi-Rynetnet, futhi kuvumela ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwe-Rnet, ukuvumelana komthetho womthetho womthetho wokuqala we-mthetho wezenziwayo futhi kuvumela ukuba kusetshenziswe isilinganiso sezinga elibanzi lezezezezezezezezezezomthetho.

KuyiNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu yangaleso sikhathi, amaJaji amaningi awawona awekho awekho awekho awekho awekho ngempela noma abalandeli bomthetho-sisekelo abaphilayo. Kunalokho, ahlanganisa izindlela zokuchaza, esebenzisa ukucabanga kokuqala kwezinye izindawo nokucabanga kokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwezinye. IJaji u-Elena Kagan, ngokwesibonelo, uye wachaza yena njengombhali wokuqala ngomqondo wokuthi uqala ngombhalo kanye nomongo wawo ongokomlando, kodwa futhi uhlangane nemibono esebenzisa indlela yokucabanga esekelwe ngomthetho-sisekelo. UMahluleli uNeil Gormoth, nakuba ezenzele ngokwakhe i-textisistry nomfundi wakuqala, uye wabonisa ukuzimisela ukucabangela incazelo yokuqala, kuhlanganise nomthetho wakwamanye amazwe emongweni othile. Iqiniso lomthetho wanamuhla umbazandlela yomphakathi womphakathi oncikelesela amathuluzi akuqala nawawo kuqala.

Ekugcineni, ukusetshenziswa kobufundisi kuhlala kuyisici esiyinhloko somthetho-sisekelo futhi kuphikiswana ngaso, kubumba indlela izinkantolo ezichaza ngayo isisekelo somthetho-sisekelo se-United States. Ifilosofi iye yazibonakalisa iqinile, isuka esimweni esiqinile kuma-707 ibe namandla amakhulu eMelika angokomthetho. Ithonya layo lisobala hhayi emibonweni yomthetho kuphela kodwa futhi nasesikoleni sesikoleni somthetho, ukumiswa kwezemfundo phambi kwenkantolo, futhi ukuhlangana kwenkulumo yomphakathi ehlobene nempikiswano yomthetho-mthetho. Ngasikhathi sinye, izinselele ezibangelwa yinkinga engokomlando ewumthetho, ukungavumelani okuvamile, nemfuno yesibonelo, iqinisekisa ukuthi ubukhombandezi obuqalayo buyoqhubeka njengoba abahluleli nezazi becwe futhi bencintisa zonke izinhloso zazo. Ngokungabazeki ukuthi ukuphikisana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwezemfundo yokuqala nezimbanombalo ezimpikiswayo ayibonisi nje; ukubonakaliswa kwezendaba ezingqondweni ezingokomthetho ezingoko ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho, ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezingokomthetho ezimisiwe, ezimisweni eziqinile nezinyenyenyenye ezingokomthetho nezinhleliwe