Ukuthunyelelwa Kokukhetha

Inqubo yokukhetha imfundiso yomthetho-sisekelo esetshenziswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States ukuba ivikele iSikhathi Samalungelo Amalungelo esizwe isebenzise i-Bill of Rights ukuba ifake i-Account Procession yeSichibiyelo se-14th Claus. Lenqubo iqinisekisa ukuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo avikelwa ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni, hhayi nje ekuphathweni uhulumeni. Phakathi nekhulu leminyaka elidlule, uchungechunge lwamacala aphawulayo luye lwahlanganisa iBill of Rights nomthetho wezwe, ukubuyisela u-American Jurisprudence nenkululeko yomphakathi yansuku zonke. Ukuqonda lezi zibophothi zicacisa indlela imingcele yokuqala yabasunguli emandla ombuso manje evikela ngayo abantu ngabanye embusweni kahulumeni nezenzo zikahulumeni zezwe ngaphesheya kwesizwe.

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane, esagunyazwa ngo-1868, ekuqaleni sasihloselwe ukuvikela izigqila ezazisanda kukhululeka emithethweni kahulumeni ewubandlululo. Nokho ulimi lwazo olubanzi − ikakhulukazi umyalo wokuthi akukho mbuso “ozoqeda noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho”. Ngokulandelana nenqubo engokomthetho, yaba imoto yokwenza iMicikili Yamalungelo Amahle eboshelwe kakhulu ezindaweni. Le nqubo yayingazenzangazenzanga ezimele; yayidinga icala ngesinqumo esinqubwelwe yiNkanto ephakeme, indlela eyaziwa njengenqobo. Ngokungafani nengqikithi yenkululeko, eyayingasebenzisa iBill of Rights ezindaweni zohlangothini, ukuhlanganisa inkantolo engakhethi, ivumela ukuba ifinyelele amalungelo ayo athathwayo “isulelo hlelo lokuzibophakanyiswa. Inkululeko enqulwini yenkululeko enqunywe ngomthetho. Inkantolo yayiyiyodwa.

IZisekelo Zokuqala: IGtlow v. New York NeSichibiyelo Sokuqala

INew York (1925)

Ngaphambi kuka-1948, iBill of Rights yaqondwa njengelinganisela umthetho kahulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Icala Getlow v. New York yashintsha leyondlela yokuzimela. Benjamin Gitrow, umsizi wezenhlalakahle, waboshwa ngaphansi komthetho wobugebengu waseNew York wokusakaza ipheshana elikhuthaza ukugumbuqelwa kukahulumeni ngamandla. Gitlow waphikisa ukuthi umthetho weSichibiyelo sakhe sokuqala uphule ekukhululweni kwenkululeko yokukhuluma. INkantolo Ephakeme, esingu 7-2, yasekela ukuthembeka kwayo ezimfanelweni kodwa, ngokubaluleke kakhulu, yamemezela isimiso esisha: “Ngoba manje singase siphethe futhi siphethe ukuthi inkululeko yokusakaza nokusakaza kwezehlakazeli elikhuselwe yizenyuselwe yizenyuko yokuqala ngenkululeko yenkululeko engcono. [i-Grebribrivey] phakathi kwelungelo elinguquluelwe yilungelo elifanele i-Edgconst .”

Lokhu kucatshangelwa − juugh directa − kwaba yisisekelo sayo yonke imfundiso ekhethayo. INkantolo ayizange iguqule inkolelo kaGitlow ngokuqondile, kodwa yavula umnyango wezinselele zamuva. Ukubaluleka akunakubekwa phezulu: okokuqala, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaqaphela ukuthi isigqebhezana sokukhuluma esikhululekile sokuqala sasetshenziswa emithethweni kahulumeni. Lesi sibonelo samisa isigaba segagagasi lezele lika-Primestion emashumini eminyaka alandela. Ngokukodwa, iNkantolo yasungula futhi “ukuthambekela okubi” kokukhuluma, kamuva yathathelwa indawo izindinganiso ezengeziwe zokuvikela inkulumo, kodwa isimiso sokwenziwayo saqhubeka.

Eduze neMinnesota (1931)

Ngokushesha ngemva kweGitlow, iNkantolo yahlanganisa inkululeko yezindaba. Near v. Minnesota, iNkantolo yawisa umthetho kahulumeni owawuvumela ukuvinjelwa kwangaphambi kwephephandaba okwakuthiwa “kuwukubi, kuhlazisa, futhi kuhlanekezela.” Isinqumo sathi isiqinisekiso sokukhishwa kweSichibiyelo sokuqala samaphepha zincwadi sisebenza kumazwe ngeSiphendulo sezeli seshumi nane, sivimbela izikhulu zikahulumeni ekucubuleni izincwadi kusengaphambili. Lendaba yagcizelela ukuthi inkululeko evikelwe ngenqubo efanele ihlanganisa isikhalazelo samaphephandaba esikhululekile, isivikelo esibalulekile sokulandisa ngentando yentando yeningi.

Isigebengu NeNkantolo YaseWarren

I-Warren Court yasebenzisa cishe zonke iziqondiso zenqubo yobugebengu ezingokomthetho nezokugcinwa kwemithetho yenkantolo yombuso, ngokuyisisekelo ishintsha ukulinganisela phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni namalungelo omuntu ngamunye. Lezi zinqumo zaveza ezinye zezidumela ezidume kakhulu kumthetho - sisekelo waseMelika.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): UMthetho We - Exclussionary Applies to United States

.App v.O. wakhuluma ngesivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuhlola nokuquleka okungacabangeli. UDollree Mapp wabekwa icala lokuba nezinto ezingcolile ngemva kokuba amaphoyisa engene ekhaya ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni. INkantolo Ephakeme yaziguqula isiqinisekiso sakhe, iphethe ukuthi ubufakazi obutholakele bokuphula iSichibiyelo sesine seSimende seSine abunakusetshenziswa ekuhlolweni kwecala. Inkantolo yahlanganisa umthetho wokususa izigebengu nokuqu zamacala. Inkantolo yama-Dollree Map yabekwa icala kuphela enkantolo yeSimiso soMnyango we-14. Isinqumo sathiwe nelungelo lokungakhohliswa ngokungemthetho abunakali uma ubufakazi obungekho ngokomthetho bungavunyelwa ekuhlolweni. Lesinqumo esithinta ngokushesha: futhi sithintana manje amaphoyisa amacala abekwe esabelweni ngokusekelwe enkantolo futhi singatholakali ngokusemthethweni.

UGideon (1963): Ilungelo Lokweluleka

Mhlawumbe akukho ndaba ebonisa kangcono isithembiso sokukhetha i-egtalian sokuhlanganisa inkantolo ngokukhetha, kodwa iFlorida kuphela eyanikeza iseluleko emacaleni ayinhloko. UGideon wazekwa ngecala. INkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi iSiphendulo seSithandathu sinelungelo elibalulekile ezindaweni ze-Frine. Inkantolo yaveza ukuthi icala elilungile ngaphandle kommeli ongenakukhokhwa. Icala elingokomthetho liyokwahlulelwa ngecala elibalulekile. Icala elingokomthetho lingenza ukuba uGideyoni ahlulelwe ngecala elingokomthetho futhi aligwenywe ngokusemthethweni. Inkantolo ibone ukuthi i-Gideonthenwa ngecala eliyi-agcona enkantolo liyimfanelo eyisisekelo yeSiphendulo seSithathu sokulunga se-Exprimeth. Inkantolo iveza ukuthi ukuqulwa ngokusemthethweni ngaphandle kwemvume yokukhokhwakhwaza i-mthetho. Inkantolo isekela ingumedusoshadile ukuba ithole elingundayo.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): I - Custodial Interrogmentation and Selfārrement

Mira v.Arizona yafaka isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu ekuziphindiseleleni enqubweni yomthetho kahulumeni. INkantolo yathi izinkulumo ezenziwa usolwayo phakathi nokuphenywa kwemvume ayisoleki ngaphandle kokuba amaphoyisa azise kuqala ukuthi anelungelo lokuthula, ukuthi noma yini ethi ingasetshenziswa kubo, futhi noma yini ingasetshenziswa kummeli uma engakwazi ukuthenga. Inkantolo yayifuna ukuba basole ngokuzisola futhi bawaphucelele ngokuzithandela lamalungelo. Nakuba lokhu kuhloselwe ukulingana amandla phakathi kwezwe kanye nokuncinwa komuntu ngamunye. I-"I-memo yenze i-Preaderdt" i-mestription ihlanganisa ukuvikela okunezelwe yi-Melika. I-Mirral futhi ingu ewuphawulwe ngokugwetshwayo.

UDuncan . Louisiana (1968): Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala LaseJury

ILouisiana Supreme Court yayinqabe icala labamangalelwa lokwahlulela lomthetho ojeziswa iminyaka emibili ejele, ithi amacala abahluleli ayengadingeki ezinkantolo zamajaji ngenxa yamacala angekhona amakaputa. E-Duncan v. Louisiana, iNkantolo ePhakeme yase-U.S. yaphikisa ukuthi iSimemezelo seSithandathu sokuHlazisela icala enkantolo enkantolo enkantolo engathi sína yecala lobugebengu futhi isebenza ezindaweni ezizimele. Inkantolo yachaza ukuthi icala lejaji “livikela abamangaleli bokonakala noma abashicileli abagcwayo, noma abamelene nabahlali becala ababoshinqile." Lelicala lenza kucace ukuthi amalungelo abekwe ehhhlwini lwezehlolo nyaka nezokuqulwa kwecala, futhi lisebenza ngokulandelana kwecala elingokomthetho.

Ukuqashwa Ngalé Kwendlela Isigebengu Esisebenza Ngayo: Izithasiselo Zanamuhla

Izinqumo zamuva zasebenzisa iSichibiyelo Sesibili, izingxenye zeSichibiyelo Sesishiyagalombili, nezinye izivikelo ezikhona ezizweni, zibonisa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okuqhubekayo kwalemfundiso.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010): ISichibiyelo Sesibili

Emashumini eminyaka, uhulumeni wezwe nohulumeni bendawo bamisa imithetho yokulawula izibhamu ngaphandle kokukhathalela iSichibiyelo sesibili, esasingakaze sifakwe. UmcDonald v. Chicago, iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yasekela ukuthi ilungelo leSibili leSiphendulo sokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali ngenxa yokuzivimbela kwesandla somthetho futhi isebenza ekubuseni nasekulweni kohulumeni bendawo. INkanto esekelwe ekucabangeni ukuthi i-Clauslee esenenye amalungelo, nakuba yabheka amalungelo noma i-Immunite Claussmuss ka-trains. McDonal Devicd ukuvicel futhi idinga imithetho yesizwe nezindawo zokuzivumelanisa i-Restliter Colinicture v. Lesinqumo sandisa ukubusa i-Heldern.

Timbs v. Indiana (209): I - Sparve Creave

Icala elikhulu lamuva nje elihilela indoda ethatha i- u-Timbs v. I-Indiana, eyayithi ukwenqatshelwa kweSichibiyelo seNguquko se-Heightsh ekukhokheni imali eshisiwe kuyasebenza ezifundazweni. Icala lihilela indoda eyabanjwa iZwe Layo leReauth Rover elingu-Rover ngemva kokuba yagwetshwa ngecala lokuthengisa isambazo esingamakhulu ambalwa ama-erandiya. INkantolo yanquma ngazwi libonke ukuthi isivikelo seSichibiyelo seNgqozo se-8 seNkaniso ye-fault Clasces. Isinqumo sagcizelela isimiso sokuthi iBLL Lomthetho umbaleli Lwelungelo lokubeka imingcele kuhulumeni ukuba akhiphe izijezo ezingaphezulu kanye nempahla.

Ukubaluleka Kwalezi Zici Eziwuphawu

Ithonya elihlanganyelweyo lokukhetha amacala ahlangene likhulu. Baye baguqula iBhili yamalungeni ukusuka ekuvinjelweni kukahulumeni kahulumeni wamazwe wonke laba umthetho wenkululeko ezweni lonke kuwo wonke amazwe. Nazi izindawo eziningana ezibalulekile:

  • Ukuvumelana kwamalungelo ayisisekelo: amaMelika manje ajabulela isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo esiyinhloko esifanayo kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ahlala kusiphi isifundazwe. Isakhamuzi kwesinye isifundazwe asinakwenqatshelwa ukuqulwa kwecala labahluleli, ummeli, noma ilungelo lokuthula ngendlela engahambisani nesinye isifundazwe.
  • Igunya lomuntu ngamunye: Abantu bangabekela imithetho nezenzo zenkantolo inselele ngokusebenzisa iziphakamiso ezifanayo zomthetho-sisekelo ezazikhona kuhulumeni kahulumeni kuphela. Lokhu kuye kwanika amalungelo omphakathi amandla, kusukela ekuphatheni okubi kwamaphoyisa kuya ekukhululeni izingxabano zokukhuluma.
  • I-Federalist kanye noBusa bezwe: Ukwanda kokuhlanganiswa kwezimo ezihloniphekile kodwa zisabeka izindinganiso eziyisisekelo zesizwe. Amazwe ahlala ekhona esebenzela idemokrati, kodwa kumelwe asebenze phakathi kwezimiso zenkululeko eyisisekelo. Ngaleyondlela imfundiso iveza ukulingana phakathi kokufana nokwehlukahluka.
  • Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kobulungisa be-Criminal Justice: Izinqumo zenqubo yobugebengu yeWarren Court ```Izenkantolo'''. Kakhulukazi uGideon, Miranda, noMap(] waqeda ingozi yokukholelwa okungalungile nokusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla amaphoyisa. Amahhovisi omphakathi okuvikela, ukukhipha umthetho, neMiranda izixwayiso kuye kwaba yizisekelo ezigebengwini.
  • Impikiswano Eqhubekayo: Ukukhetha ukuhlanganiswa kuseyindaba yempikiswano yezazi nezokwahlulela. Abanye abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lemfundiso ivumele ijaji lezwe ukuba lithathe indiva inqubo engokomthetho engokomthetho, kuyilapho abasekeli bephikisa ngokuthi ivikela umsuka ongenakuhlukaniswa wenkululeko. Indlela yokuhlanganisa i-(ethectal) ngokulandela i-'Active' noma amalungelo noma i-Immunion" iyaqhubeka incintiswaniswa, njengoba kubhekwa emibonweni ehlukene kuMcDonald.

Lamacala aphawulekayo futhi amise izindinganiso ezibalulekile ezingokomthetho zokugcinwa komthetho, izinqubo zokwahlulela, nokulandisa kukahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, umthetho okhishwayo eMap uvimbela ukuphenywa okungekho emthethweni; ilungelo lokululeka kuGideyoni liqinisekisa ukuqulwa okulungile; iMiranda isixwayiso sivikela ekuvumeni izono ngokuphoqelelwe; futhi ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala kuDuncan likhuthaza ukuhlanganyela komphakathi nokuqondisa isimiso sokwahlulela sobugebengu.

Isiphetho

Indaba yokukhetha intuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu eMthethweni waseMelika. Kusukela ngo-Gitlow kaGitlow ngo-1990, iNkantolo Ephakeme kancane kancane yasebenzisa ingxenye enkulu yeSigqi Samalungelo Omphakathi ezifundazweni, inqaba ingqikithi yokuhlanganiswa kwelungelo ngokucophelela, uma icala elingu-extonbykhasethi eligxile ekukhetheni okuyisisekelo. Izimo ezingokomlando ezixoxwe lapha ````````IGitlow'''', Sekuseduze, Map', Gideon, Mechana, McDonald, noTimbs', chaza ukuthi uMthetho-kakhulu we-kahhhhhhliswa kanjani amalungelo esizwe ukuze uvikele amalungelo abantu ngabanye akhona ngokushesha. Ngokuqonda lezi zinqunyelelwa ngokuyisisekelo, izikhululo ezingokomthetho ezinikezwayo ukuba ziqinisekise ukuthi uBill welungelo elivamile lokusungula kodwa ibhulikizayo liqhubekele futhi liqhubekele amalungelo embusweni yemfundiso kahulumeni; iMithebe imvume yesikhathi esizayo esaba kakhulu ingakathi esaba kakhulu ingakashubini, noma

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, bheka Gitlow v. New York (Oyez), Mapp v.Ohio (Oyez), [[FLT:] [[FLT]] Gideon v. Wainw (Cell LII), ] Marda. Arizona (Ez)[FLT], [[FLT:], kanye [oct:] ne [[FLT]]