Imfundiso ye ekhetha ukuhlanganiswa kwezwe ne-ohulumeni bendawo, kodwa ukukhethwa kwecala, kungathiwa ngenye yentuthuko eshintsha kakhulu eMthethweni we-Gronal-siseko waseMelika. Inikeza indlela engokomthetho yokuvikela okubekwe ngayo kuyiBill of Rights, isetshenziswa kuhulumeni nase-Ofuleni, hhayi bonke, kodwa ngecala, ngenkani, ngeMicimbi ye-STICUR Procession Clauscesme yeSimende se-1459. Ngaphambi kokuba i-Gcisociso, iMiba yamaLungelo ilinganisela kuphela uhulumeni wezwe, ishiya amasiko ekhululekile kakhulu ekuvimbeleni inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Ngekhulu lama-20, iNkanto ephakeme yakhipha uchungechunge lwezinqumo yemithetho eyanwe kancane kancane kancane kancane kuMelika wonke, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isiphi isimo esimweni esikhona. Ukuqonda lezi zinquluko kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni amalungelo omthetho.

Ukubukeka Kwangaphambili: Isizathu Sokuba Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu Singasebenzi E - United States

Iminyaka yokuqala engu-130 yeRepublic, iSigqibo samaLungelo saqondwa njengesithiyo sokuvimbela uhulumeni kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yenza lokhu kwacaca Barron v. Baltimore [1833], lapho uMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall ekholelwa ukuthi izinguquko zokuqala eziyishumi “akukho magama abonisa injongo yokuzisebenzisa kohulumeni." Ngemva kweMpi yomphakathi, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sesine se-Balve samukelwa ngemvume enqabela ukuncishwa“ umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Ikhono lalomthetho ekuqaleni lancishwa i-Case [FLD [F:2] Preastnames [3] [3] [i-Foctern3], noma imvume yokushiya amalungelo afanele] eMnyango womthetho.

Kwaphela amashumi eminyaka iNkantolo yenqaba ukusebenzisa isiqinisekiso seBhill of Rights ezifundazweni. Kodwa ekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili leminyaka, kwaqala ukuvela indlela entsha yokubheka ku-Century Procesme Clause ukuze kubonwe ukuthi iyiphi inkululeko eyisisekelo “esekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko engokomthetho” futhi ngenxa yalokho ibopha imibuso.

Impumelelo Yokuqala: Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nesiqalo Sokukhetha

INew York (1925)

Inkathi yoshintsho yafika Gitlow v. New York. UBenjamin Gitlow, umsosha-sociali, wayebekwe icala ngaphansi komthetho wesiphithiphithi wezephulamthetho waseNew York ngokukhipha ukukhombisa ukugumbuqelwa kukahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuqiniseka kwakhe ngokufaneleka okutheni [1] ngoba inkulumo ekhulumayo yaphakamisa usongo olwanele lokuthethelela isijeziso, kodwa ngokwenza kanjalo, yamemezela isimiso esinemiphumela engcono kakhulu kunemiphumela yecala. Ngokokuqala, iNkantolo yamemezela ukuthi “inkululeko yokukhuluma neyokunyathelisa ivikelwe yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala esisekelwe engxabeni esiyisisekelo senkululeko neyo.)

Nakuba uGitlow alahlekelwa, isinqumo savulela abamangali besikhathi esizayo ithuba lokubekela imithetho yombuso eyayiphula amalungelo eSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Saphawula ukuqala okungokomthetho kokufakwa kwenqubo yokukhetha (a) eyayizovela ngecala phakathi namashumi ambalwa eminyaka alandelayo.

Uvivinyo Oluyisisekelo Lwenzuzo: UPalko Nokufuna “Inkululeko Evunyelweyo”

IPalko v. Connecticut (1937)

Ku uPalko v.Connecticut, iNkantolo yabhekana noma isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sisebenza ezifundeni. Ukubhalela iningi, uMahluleli Benjamin Cardozo wenqaba umqondo wokuthi lonke iBill of Rights kufanele ifakwe i-acement. Kunalokho, wasungula “ukulinganisa okungaguquguquki kwezengqondo”: kuphela lawomalungelo“angenasisekelo emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe” futhi“ asekelwe kakhulu emasikweni nasemkhubeni abantu bethu njengangokokuthi abaluleke kakhulu. Ngaphansi kwalokhu kuhlolwa, iNkanto engenakuba nengozi ephelele. [Foctive] [2] [5]

UMahluleli uHugo Black, ophikisayo odumile, waphikisa ngokuthi “uhlanganisa ingqikithi” [1] umbono wokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo se-Access’s Processol Claus sasihloselwe ukusebenzisa wonke uBill of Rights ezifundazweni. Ukuma kobumnyama akuzange kuqondise iningi, kodwa ukuphikisa kwakhe okunamandla kwasiza ekusunduzeleni iNkantolo ekuqondeni kakhulu ukuthi amalungelo abaluleke ngani.

Izinqumo Eziyinhloko Ezakha Imfundiso Yanamuhla Yokuhlobanisa Abantu

Eduze neMinnesota (1931) – Inkululeko Ye - Press

Eminyakeni eyisithupha ngemva kukaGitlow, iNkantolo yafaka isisho seSichibiyelo Sokuqala sezindaba [FLT] se-Near v. Minnesota. Icala lawulahla umthetho kahulumeni owawuvumela ukuvinjelwa kwangaphambili “kokubi, okuhlazisayo, nokungcolisayo” amaphephandaba. INkantolo yathi inkululeko yabanyathelisi yokuzicindezela ngaphambi kokuba bavimbele yayiyinkululeko eyisisekelo evikelwe yi-Guard Procesting Clausle. Lesi sinqumo sanikeza umngcele wabo wokuqala ocacile ngokumelene nokucusumbula.

UDeJonge v. e - Oregon (1937) – Inkululeko Yomhlangano

Denge v. Oregon, iNkantolo yahlanganisa ilungelo leSichibiyelo Sokuqala lokuhlangana ngokuthula. Icala lalihilela umhlangano weQembu lamaKhomanisi elaphulwa iziphathimandla ze-Oregon. INkantolo yavumelana ngokunquma ukuthi ilungelo lenhlangano liyinkululeko eyisisekelo, futhi leyo mikhakha yayingeke ibangele ukuba kube khona emhlanganweni wezombangazwe onokuthula.

Cantwell mayelana neConnecticut (1940) – Ukuvivinya Inkolo Ngokukhululekile

Cantwell v. Connecticut yahlanganisa isigqebhezana sokuzivivinya kokuqala kweSichibiyelo samahhala. Icala lalihilela oFakazi BakaJehova ababoshelwe ukucela iminikelo ngaphandle kwemvume nokudlala irekhodi elagxeka iSonto lamaKatolika. INkantolo yathi i-Sect Procession Claus ivikela ilungelo lokukholelwa nokuqhuba inkolo yomuntu, ibekwa imingcele elinganiselwe kuphela yokuphepha nokuhleleka komphakathi.

Ibhodi Yemfundo (1947) – Ukumiswa kukaClaus

I-region yokumisa yafakwa e-Everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Esinqumweni sika-5764, iNkantolo yaseNew Jersey yasekela umthetho owakhokhela abazali imali yemali yebhasi ezikoleni ze-patochial, kodwa futhi yasebenzisa isigqekezo sokumiswa kwezindawo okokuqala. Umbono kaJaji Black wamemezela ngodumo ukuthi “ISiphendulo Sokuqala sakha udonga phakathi kwesonto nombuso” nokuthi“ lolodonga kumelwe lugcinwe luphakeme futhi lungangangangahluziwe.” U-Herson uhlala engumzekelo wesisekelo wezentengiselwano yesonto ezingeni zesifundazwe.

IMap v. Ohio (1961) – Isichibiyelo Sesine noMthetho We - Exclussion

Mhlawumbe esinye sezinqumo ezithathelwana kakhulu ezihlanganisa i- Mapp v.Ohio. Ikhaya likaDollree Mapp lahlolwa amaphoyisa ngaphandle komthetho, futhi walahlwa icala lokuba nezinto ezingcolile. INkantolo Ephakeme yasiguqula isiqinisekiso futhi yanquma ukuthi iSiphendulo Sesine sivikelwe ekuphenyeni okungakholekiyo nasekuqubukeni, kanye nomthetho osuwe-kusetshenziswa ngokungekho emthethweni, kusebenza ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ngaphambi kweMap, kusho ukuthi yayingasebenzisa ubufakazi ngisho noma butholakale ngokungekho emthethweni. Ngemva kweMap, umthetho we-parry waba yindiva yezinga elivamile lokugcinwa komthetho.

UGideon uWainwright (1963) – Ilungelo Lokweluleka

Gedeon v. Wainwright wakholelwa ukuthi isiqinisekiso seSichibiyelo seSithandathu sokumangalelwa komthetho wezephulamthetho sisebenza emacaleni kahulumeni. UClarence Earl Gideon, ummangalelwa ompofu eFlorida, wayenqatshwe ummeli wenkantolo emisiwe. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi ilungelo lokunikeza iseluleko “liyi-"sici esibalulekile futhi sibalulekile ekuqulweni okulungile” futhi ngenxa yalokho ihlanganisele emacaleni eMbusweni we-Creastement. Lesinqumo saholela ekudalweni kwezimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela umphakathi ngaphesheya kwe-United States.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – Self à Incrimanation

Ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuziphikisa lafakwa ezixwayisweni Miranda v. Arizona, eyahlanganisa nelungelo leSiqendulo Sesithupha sokweluleka embusweni wamaphoyisa. INkantolo yafuna ukumiswa komthetho ukuze yazise abasolwa ngamalungelo abo. [i-‘i-‘‘``````````````Famarialda ’ Miranda''''''''''''''''.',' nakuba ifaka umthetho we-simemezelo ngokomthetho', yasetshenziswa ezindaweni ngohlelo lwe-Propalmsssssss, futhi ihlala ingundala yenqubo yobugebengu.

Ukuqhubeka Nale Nkambi: Ukuhlaziywa Kwezigwebo Zamuva

Duncan . Louisiana (1968) – Ilungelo Lokuqulwa Kwecala KwamaJury

Ilungelo leSiqeshiwe seSithandathu lokuqulwa kwecala lobugebengu lafakwa enkantolo ku-Muncan v. Louisiana. INkantolo yathi ilungelo lokuqulwa amajaji emacaleni angathi sína libalulekile futhi libopha izigebengu. Lesi sinqumo sabangela ishifu elikhulu: amashende aye azama ukuqulwa kwezembubhisi ezincane ngaphandle kwejaji.

EGault (1967) – Inqubo Efanele IJuveniles

Nakuba kungesona isici esiphelele ngomqondo ongokwesiko, ku-Gault kwasetshenziswa izivikelo eziningi ze-Clause Procession [1] kuhlanganise nelungelo lokwelulekwa, ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi − ukusho ubuhlongandlebe bentsha. Kwabonisa ukuthi imfundiso efakwayo yanwetshwa ngaphezu kwesimiso sobugebengu esikhulile.

IDolobha laseChicago (2010) – ISichibiyelo Sesibili

Eminyakeni eminingi, iSichibiyelo sesibili sasingasetshenziswa ezifundazweni. INkantolo yashintsha ukuthi [ku- McDonald v. City of Chicago, eyahlanganisa iSichibiyelo sesibili nelungelo lokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali zomuntu ngokwakhe. Umbono wobuningi wawuncike ku-"UMklamo we-Calct Claus, uphethe ukuthi kwesokudla “sisekelwe kakhulu esicebeni sethu senkululeko” futhi“ sagxila kakhulu kulomlando nesiko lesizwe." McDonald uqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho wezwe newonga lokudubula kumelwe uhloniphe umsuka we we-Filiv [FLT]. HELD [F:]

Umphumela Wokukhetha: Ukufana Nobunye NobuFederalism

Ukufakwa kwemithetho esemthethweni esemthethweni kuye kwaveza ushintsho oluphawulekayo kuhulumeni waseMelika. Ngaphambi kokuba lemfundiso igcinwe, amalungelo esakhamuzi angahluka kakhulu kusukela kwesinye isifundazwe kuya kwesinye. Namuhla, iningi lesivikelo samalungelo esizwe liphoqelelwa kuhulumeni bendawo. Umphumela uyisikhulu esifanayo senkululeko engokomthetho-mthethweni ezweni lonke, kuyilapho amazwe ahlala ekhululekile ukunikeza isivikelo esibanzi uma ekhetha.

Lemfundiso futhi ilinganisela ukuvinjelwa kokwahlulela kanye nokushintsha okuhlangene. Ngokufaka amalungelo ecala eliyi-extonbyphases, iNkantolo ingahlola ilungelo ngalinye emongweni wayo womlando nosebenza. Indlela ephelele yokuhlanganisa ekhuthazwa uMahluleli Black ibingaba lula kakhulu, kodwa iNkantolo ibikhetha intuthuko enikezwa yi-oversel.

Kuye kwavela izimiso eziningana eziyisisekelo kulezi zinqumo:

  • Amalungelo omfantu yilawo “asekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe” futhi asetshenziswa ezizweni ngeNdlela ka Claus.
  • Awekho wonke amalungelo kuBill of Rights afakwa. Ngokwesibonelo, iSichibiyelo sesithathu (isikhungo samasosha) nemfuneko enkulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu yokulahla amajaji amacala ayi-freeter ayizange isetshenziswe ezifundazweni.
  • Ukuhlanganisa kuyakhetha, hhayi ingqikithi. Ilungelo ngalinye kumelwe lifungqwe ngelinye phambi kokuba libopha izimo.
  • ubukhulu belungelo [ uma lisetshenziswa ezifundazweni bungase bufane nalapho lisetshenziswa kuhulumeni kahulumeni, kodwa iNkantolo ngezinye izikhathi ilungisa indinganiso ukuze ikwazi ukuhlalisa izithakazelo zikahulumeni.

Kubafundi nabezomthetho - sisekelo, uhlu lwamacala afakwayo lunikeza ucwaningo olucebile lwendlela iNkantolo Ephakeme eye yalawula ngayo ukungqubuzana kwesizwe nokuzimela kwezwe. Izinqumo azizona nje izenzakalo ezingokomlando; zihlala ziyisisekelo sokubekwa kwamalungelo anamuhla, kusukela ekukhulumeni ngokukhululekile kuya ekutheni umuntu uphethe izibhamu.

Izinselele Nekusasa Lokukhetha

Nakuba ukuhlanganiswa okukhethayo manje sekumiswe kahle, imibuzo isasele. INkantolo ayikaze isebenzise isilinganiso esicacile salokho okwenza “inkolelo,” futhi abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi indinganiso ingasetshenziswa ukuze ifinyelele imiphumela efunekayo. Unyuko ‘ noma ukugonyelwa” lusikisela ukuthi amajaji athile Saenz v. Roe[[FLT] [[1] [1999] [[99]) kanye nemibono ekhona ku-Mcrand [ lusikisela ukuthi amajaji athile angase azimisele ukubheka ukuthi imoto i-"injini e-'uhlelo lika-Claus], kuhlanganise nobuchwepheshe obusha, njengobusunguli obusha obufana nobusungulwayo, obunye obunye obufana nobezingadinga ukuvikelwa kwezelelwa kweNkakhulu (FLT: 3) ekwanele) ekwanele ukuba isivikelo sesimanje.

Ngo-2022, Dobbs v.Jackson’s Health Organization [[FLT]] wahlehla Roe v. Wade ne[[FLT]][FLT][FLT]] -Parenthoial v. [Icala [[FLT]], liphethe ukuthi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu alisekelwengajulile emlandweni wesizwe futhi kanjalo alikho ilungelo eliyisisekelo elivikelwa yi-Clausce. Isinqumo sigcizelela ukuthi ukuhlanganiswa komthetho akuyona enye engaphezulu; iNkakhulu ingaye yaze iqaphele njengokubaluleke ngisho noma ibivikelwe ngaphambili. Lokhu kuye kwabhebhetheliswa ukuthi amanye amalungelo engokomlando.

Noma kunjalo, imfundiso eyisisekelo yokukhetha iyaqhubeka isekelwe ngokuqinile emthetho waseMelika. Izinqumo eziphawuliwe ngenhla ziyaqhubeka zisebenza njengesisekelo sempicano yomthetho-sisekelo. Ziqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo esake sagcinelwa labo abasebenzelana nohulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni manje sivikela izakhamuzi zonke ekuphanjweni yiziphathimandla zendawo.

Ukufunda Okwengeziwe Nemithombo

Kulabo abafisa ukuwahlola ngokujule ngokwengeziwe la macala, la mathuluzi alandelayo anikeza ukuhlaziya okuhle:

Indaba yokukhetha ukufakwa kwenkululeko ehamba kancane kodwa engaguquki. Indaba ngayinye ihlanganisa ilungelo leseluleko, umthetho wokuhlukanisa, noma ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali (_afridges) ukuthi isithembiso seSivumelwano samalungelo esizwe asigciniwe eWashington, D.C. singesasasakhamuzi ngasinye, kuwo wonke amadolobha, njengesivikelo ekusetshenzisweni kabi kwamandla ohulumeni.