Isingeniso: IBhuloho Lomthetho - sisekelo Phakathi KoMbuso Nombuso Wama - Federal

Ubuhlobo phakathi kokuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo ayisisekelo nomqondo womthetho-sisekelo waseMelika yanamuhla buyisisekelo somthetho-sisekelo wanamuhla. Ikhuluma ngombuzo obucayi: yimuphi amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo − ekuqaleni aklanyelwe ukulinganisela kuphela uhulumeni wezwe − futhi unqanda izenzo zohulumeni bendawo nezindawo? Ngokufundisa ukuthi iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. isebenza kanjani futhi idinga ukubheka ngokuseduze kakhulu, kodwa hhayi konke, kwalesivikelo kumazwe ngeSiphendulo senkululeko samashumi amane nane. Lenqubo iye yalungisa kabusha indawo yenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye, yakha indawo eyisisekelo yamalungelo asebenza kuyo yonke imikhakha yohulumeni. Ukuqonda ukuthi iU. Inkantolo idinga ukubheka ngokuseduze kakhulu, izinqumo ezingokomthetho, neziyinhloko zezokwahlulela, kanye nempikiswano eqhubekayo ngokuphatheleneze amalungelo amalungelo abantu.

Isisekelo Somlando: Ngaphambi Kokungavumelani

Ukuqonda Kwasekuqaleni Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu

Lapho iBill of Rights igunyazwa ngo-1791, kwaqondwa ngokucacile ukuthi i-Lill of Rights ilinganiselwe kuphela kuhulumeni omusha kahulumeni, hhayi imibuso. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa lencazelo Barron v. Baltimore [1833], iphethe ukuthi iSimemezelo seNguqulo sesihlanu asisebenzi kuhulumeni noma kohulumeni bendawo. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall we-Rekhodio wayehlolwe njenge-cheme egunyeni likahulumeni kuphela. Kumashumi ambalwa eminyaka alandelayo, imithetho yesizwe nemithetho yahlala iwumthombo oyinhloko wesivikelo samalungelo abantu ngabanye, okuholela ekuhlukahlukahlukani okukhulu ezweni.

Izichibiyelo Zempi Zangemva Kwempi

Ukuhlanganiswa kweZichibiyelo zekhulu leshumi nane, neshumi elinesihlanu ngemva kweMpi Yombango kwawushintsha kakhulu umehluko wezwekazi. Isichibiyelo seshumi naneth, esamukelwa ngo-1868, sahlanganisa izigaba eziningana: iPriveleges noma i-Immunites Claus , , i-Ceclected Project , futhi [[FLT:]] i-Eal Provileges [[[FL:5]]. Nakuba injongo yokuqala yayivikela amalungelo ama-Afrika asanda kukhululwa, ulimi lwe-astmentment. I-FLTY] yayibonakala i-Clavision [igravice] futhi [igment:[5] i-F.NT] i-Fogconves, njengoba ikhodiephathiswe kakhulu yeNkakhulu leNkakhulu lekhulu lekhulu], njengoba iveza.[3]

Imfundiso Yokuhlukanisa: Imibala ekhethiwe.

Ukusondela Okukhethekile

Imfundiso yanamuhla yokuhlanganisa yavela kancane kancane ngochungechunge lwamacala aqala ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20. LeNkantolo yamukela ukuhlanganisa okungakhethwayo , ihlola ilungelo ngalinye eBill of Rights ngalinye futhi inqume ukuthi “iwukuvumelana nohlelo lwaseMelika lobulungisa” futhi kanjalo isebenza ezizweni. Lendlela yavumela iNkantolo ukuba yandise isivikelo ngo-Nkathi, ngokuvamile incike emqondweni wenkululeko [ ebekwe phakathi kwenkululeko futhi inquma ukuthi yayiyi-[FLT] yini ebekwe phakathi kwenkululeko [FLT:].[FLT] [FLT] [5] [4], futhi ayizange isetshenziswe ngokuphindwe kabili ku-Mariya (3]).[FLT] [3] [3] [3]

Ukungavumelani Okuphelele Nokwahlulela Okumnyama

Enye indlela, ingqikithi ehlanganisiwe, yasekelwa uMahluleli Hugo Black. Waphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo se 14 seSichibiyelo sasihloselwe ukwenza wonke u-Bill of Rights isibopho samalungelo ezifundazweni. Umbono ka-Black akazange uqondise iningi, kodwa ukuphikisa kwakhe nokuvumelana kwakhe kwathonya izinqumo zamuva. INkantolo ekugcineni yalahla ingqikithi yokuhlanganisa, igcina i-octivetion ekhethayo njengendlela ekhona. Nokho, impikiswano, igcizelela ukuqina phakathi kombhalo wokuqala nolwesimo esiyisisekelo.

Icala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Ewuhambo Lokungavumelani

Inkululeko Yokuqala Yesichibiyelo: Amaphayona

Isivumelwano sokuhlanganisa amalungelo eSichibiyelo Sokuqala saqala ngenhliziyo yonke [[FLT: 0] Getlow v. New York (1925). GITLOW[, iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi i Free Speak Claus Exption isebenza kumazwe ngeSigqizo seNdlela Esingaphambili u-Claus eSigqizekile, ngisho noma isiqinisekiso sommangalelwa sasekelwa kwezinye izizathu. [[FLT] lesi sinqumo savula umnyango wemijikelezo elandelayo: [[FLT:].[FLT] V[5] [FL:]] [5] [4] [ivolve]] [imvume] imvume ngayinye.[5]

I - Warren Court: Inkathi Yesigebengu

Ukwanda okuphawuleka kakhulu kokufakwa kwecala kwenzeka ngaphansi kukaMahluleli Omkhulu u-Earl Warren ngawo-1960. INkantolo iWarren yasebenzisa izinhlelo eziningi zobugebengu ezivikela izifundazwe, ngokuyisisekelo ziguqula ukuphatha kobulungisa. Icala le-Landmark zihlanganisa:

  • Mapp v.Oo (1961) – Ihlanganise umthetho weSichibiyelo sesine wokususa, ivala ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungacabangeki nokuquleka.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – Ihlanganise ilungelo leSithandathu leSichibiyelo somthetho emacalani empikiswayo.
  • Miranda v. Arizona [1966] – Ihlanganise ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngokumelene nokuziphikisa ngokwaso njengoba sisetshenziswa ekuphenyweni kwemvume yokugunyazwa kwemvume, idinga i-familiar "izixwayiso zeManda.”
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) – yahlanganisa ilungelo leSithandathu leSichibiyelo sokuqulwa icala lijajiwe yijaji emacaleni amakhulu obugebengu.

Lezi zinqumo zaqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa bamangalelwa basemthethweni babevikelwe ngendlela efanayo nangabamangalelwa abangokomthetho, ushintsho olusalokhu lunethonya elikhulu kumaphoyisa nasezinkantolo zaseMelika.

Amanye Amalungelo Afakiwe

Ngalé kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala nenqubo yobugebengu, iNkantolo iye yahlanganisa namanye amalungiselelo. Ilungelo leSichibiyelo Sesibili lokugcina nokuphatha izingalo lafakwa McDènald v. Idolobha laseChicago[ (2010]), ukuthatha u-Claus we-Fith Reformation kwafakwa [Foct:] CContension [[FGON:], ukuphatha [[FGORN:2]] i-Griverse yase-Coluev. [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [9] [9] [18]) ukuvikelwa okungavamile [indeka kuka-Enye.[5] Imvume engavamile i-Quni] Ingubosbos.[Fogn:[3] Ingubonke]

Amalungelo Angekho Omshadweni: Okungafiki Ngaphandle

Akuwona wonke amalungiselelo eSiphakamiso samaLungelo asehlanganisiwe. ISichibiyelo sesithathu esinqabela amasosha esabelweni se-Orject asizange sifakwe ngokuqondile, nakuba enye inkantolo kahulumeni yasikisela ukuthi lesi Sichibiyelo sesihlanu singaba yisisekelo. Ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu lokulahla inkantolo enkulu lihlala lingafakwanga, izincazelo zingasebenzisa ezinye izindlela ezinjengokuqulwa kwamacala okuqala. Ilungelo leSichibiyelo seSendetic sokuqulunte enkantolo emacala omphakathi alisetshenziswangasekhokhwa ezimisweni zezakhamuzi. Le ngxenye ehlukene ibonisa isimo esingakhethi se-internameotion: iNkanto enquma ukuthi ilungelo “lisekelwe emasikweni nasemthethweni nasemthethweni wabantu bethu. [[[FLD] der.[FLD] .[FFP][1]

Indima Yenqubo Engaqondakali Kakhulu

Ukusuka Elungelweni Engokomnotho Kuya Ekuzifuneleni Kwakho

Ukuhlanganiswa kuhlobene kakhulu nemfundiso ebanzi yenqubo efanelekile . Nakuba ukufakwa kusebenzisa amalungelo akhethekile kusukela ku-Bill of Rights ukuya kumazwe, inqubo efunekayo iqaphela ukuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo avikelwe futhi yize i-Century Procesting Claus. Lokhu kuhlanganisa amalungelo anjengomshado, ubuhlobo bomkhaya, ukuvimbela ukuvimbela inzalo, nokukhipha isisu. Griswold v. Connecticut[FL:] [195] [195], iNkanto ekholelwa ukuthi imfihlo elungile eseseni yomshado, nakuba kungashiwo ngokuqondile kuBill of Rights, yayikhuselwe inkululeko eyisisekelo ye-Genest. Ngokufanayo, [2] [vFofreg] [5] [5]

Izindlela Zokuhlelwa Nokuhlanganiswa Kwabantu Abangaphansi

Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi kokubili ukuhlanganiswa kwenqubo efanelekile neyokufakwa kwesivumelwano kunikeza amajaji ukwahlulela ngokuqondisisa kakhulu ukuba asungule amalungelo amasha noma andise amadala adlule incazelo yabo yokuqala. Abaqondisi besonto, njengoMahluleli wamuva uAntonin Scalia, baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhlanganiswa kwamalungelo aqondwa ngokomlando njengokuyisisekelo ngesikhathi sokuncishiswa kweSichibiyelo se 145. UMahluleli uClarence Thomas uye wasekela ukuvuselelwa kwamalungelo amadala noma i-Immunities Claus eyisisekelo esizwakalayo somsindo kakhulu sokuvikela kokubili nokungawahluzi. La macritique ayaqhubeka enziwa ukuma kwempikiswano yomthetho womthetho, ikakhulukazi njengoba ukuqamba kweNkalkhoti.

Ithonya Lamalungelo Ayisisekelo: Ukuziphatha Okufanayo Nokulwela Uhulumeni

Ukwakha Ibala Lezivikelo Zesizwe

Ithonya elibaluleke kakhulu lokufakwa kuye kwaba ukusungulwa kwendinganiso ephansi yomhlaba wonke yamalungelo ayisisekelo. Ngaphambi kokuba kufakwe, umuntu angancishwa isivikelo sokukhuluma esizweni esithile lapho ejabulela esinye. Namuhla, iSimemezelo Sokuqala siqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mbuso ongase uphambuke. Ngokufanayo, ilungelo leSimemezelo Sesishiyagamende sokunikeza iseluleko liqinisekisa ukuthi akekho ophoqelelwa ukuba amelane nomthetho nganoma isiphi isifundazwe. Lokhu kuqinisa umthetho futhi kuqinisa umqondo wokuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo kuwo wonke amaMelika, kungakhathaliseki isimo sawo yokuhlala.

Izingxabano Nezici Zokulwela Uhulumeni Nokulawula Kwendawo

Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukuhlanganiswa kwezindawo kuye kwanciphisa ikhono lokuzama izindlela ezihlukene ezingokomthetho zokwahlulela komthetho nenkululeko yomphakathi. Abagxeki bezinto ezihlangene kakhulu baphikisa ngokuthi kululaza ubuzwe, isimiso somthetho-sisekelo okumelwe silondoloze ukuzimela okukhulu ukuze kubonise izindinganiso zendawo. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izifundazwe zake zavumela ukuphenyiswa okungenasiqinisekiso ezicini ezithile ukuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme kamuva yanqabela. Ukulinganisela phakathi kokuvikela amalungelo abantu kanye nokuhlonipha ubukhosi bamazwe kuseyimpikiswana enkulu ekuvimbeleni komthetho.

Imibuzo Yanamuhla Yokuziphakamisa Nengaxazululwanga

Ukuhlaziywa Kwesibili Kwezincibilikiso Nelungelo Lokuthwala Izikhali

Ukufakwa kweSichibiyelo Sesibili McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010) kubangele ukubekwa okusha kwamalungelo ezibhamu. Isinqumo esidingekayo emazweni nasemadolobhani ukuthethelela imithetho yawo yezibhamu ngaphansi kokuhlola okuqinile okulawula imithetho kahulumeni. Izinkantolo ezisezantsi ziyaqhubeka zixabana ngemibuzo ngemithetho ethile yesibhamu evunyelwe ngemva kokufakwa. Le ndawo ibonisa ukuthi ukuhlanganisa akuyona imfundiso eqinile kodwa kuyindlela eyenzeka ngayo iNkantolo ichaza ukufaneleka kwamalungelo ayisisekelo.

Ukuzihlukanisa Kwamanani Nesichibiyelo Sesine

Intuthuko kwezobuchwepheshe iphakamisa imibuzo emisha. Nakuba isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesine sokuhlola okungacabangeli sesisetshenziswa kade ezizweni, indlela lezo sivikelo esisebenza ngayo emininingwaneni yezobuchwepheshe (njengemibhalo yendawo yocingo, ama-imeyili, kanye no-Internet ukuhlola umlando we-(isikhathi esikhona). Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ] Carbart v. United States [208], eyayithi uhulumeni ngokuvamile udinga isiqinisekiso sokungena engosini ebekwe kuyo ukwaziswa okungokomlando okusengokwaziswa kwesesitejiyesine kodwa engabhidli isisekelo semindaniso entsha. Nokho, izimo zesikhathi esizayo zingahlola ukuthi imfundiso ingazigcina yini izinjongo ezikhona.

I - Agenda Engaphoxekile: Inkolo Ephakeme Namalungelo Omphakathi

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, imfuneko enkulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu yabahluleli ingafakwanga, izincazelo zingasetshenziswa ezinye izinqubo. Ngokufanayo, ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesizwe seSeventh Communiment alibosheli ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kushiyeka kwakha isimiso esinezici ezimbili zobulungisa, lapho abamangalelwa bakahulumeni bejabulela izivikelo ezinkulu kodwa abamangalelwa abasemthethweni abakhohliswayo. Ukuthi iNkantolo yamanje ingahlanganisa lamalungelo aqinisekile, inikezwa imibono ekhona yokuqala neyobungane nombuso. Kodwa lendaba iyaqhubeka iyisihloko esisebenzayo sengxoxo engokomthetho nengokwemfundo.

Isiphetho: Imfundiso Ephilayo Yesizwe Esishintshayo

Ubuhlobo phakathi kokuhlanganisa kanye nomqondo wamalungelo ayisisekelo abuyona into engokomlando noma indaba exazululiwe ngokugcwele. Kusukela esinqumweni sokuqala ku- Barron v. Baltimore ezicabeni zanamuhla uMncDonald[[] futhi ngalé kwalokho, iNkantolo ePhakathi yeNkantolo ePhakathi isebenzise iSimende seSimendo seSimendo se-145" ukuze isungule isibopho sesizwe senkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Indlela ekhethayo ivumela iNkanto yeNkanto ukuba ivumela iSivumelo samaLungelo ukuba sivumelane izimo ezintsha lapho ihlonipha uhlelo lomthetho wakuqala. Emkhakhelweni wayo, iveza ukukholelwa kokuthiwa okubaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba kumelwe kuvikelwe kuyo yonke imibuso, noma imibuso emiphakathi, izinkolelo ezingokwesiko, iqhubeke ukuveza izincazelo zezimiso zomthetho, ukuhlanganisa amalungelo eziyisisekelo, ukuhlanganisa amalungelo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola yonke imibono yezindaba ezihlanganisa inkinobho Getlow v. New York kanye Mapp v.Ohio e-Oyez, i-Cornell Legional Information Institute yokucaciswa kwemfundiso [[[FLT:] 4] e-i-inquisition, kanye nengxoxo yenqubo efanelekile e [FT]