Isisekelo SobuFederal AseMelika

Ukuhlukaniswa kwegunya phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nezwe kuyisici esichazayo sesimiso sezombangazwe sase-United States. Lesi sakhiwo, esaziwa ngokuthi i-constitution, sidala ubukhosi obumbaxambili lapho isigaba ngasinye sikahulumeni sinezici zaso siqu zamandla, imishini, nemithwalo yemfanelo. Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela kubalulekile hhayi kubafundi bomthetho womthetho wezwe kuphela kodwa nakunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda ukuthi izimiso zemfundo, ezokwelapha, nokuphepha komphakathi zimi kanjani. UMthetho-Constitution, njengoba uchazwa emakhulwini amabili eminyaka yomlando nomthetho we-jurisprance, unikeza ipulani yalo buhlobo obuyinkimbinkimbi.

Umbono Wobukhosi Obubodwa

Ubukhosi buchaza isimiso lapho ohulumeni ababili abahlukene besebenzisa khona igunya phezu kwendawo eyodwa nenani labantu. E-United States, uhulumeni kahulumeni ulinganiselwe, ubala imingcele, kuyilapho ohulumeni bombuso benombuso ovulekile, owengeziwe. Lelilungiselelo lahloselwe ukuvikela inkululeko ngokuhlukanisa amandla nokuvimbela noma yimuphi umbusi oyedwa ukuba abe yisici esinamandla esiye savela ngokuphawulekayo kusukela ekusungulweni.

Imvelaphi Yomlando: Ukusuka Ekuvumelaneni Kuya Emthethweni - sisekelo

Okuhlangenwe nakho kwabasebenzi be-flamers ngaphansi kweZihloko ze-Confederation (1781-1789) babaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni obuthakathaka ophakathi wayengenakukwazi ukulawula ngokuphumelelayo ukuzivikela kwesizwe, ezentengiselwano, noma ubuhlobo bezinye izizwe. UMthetho-sisekelo wango-1787 wafuna ukwakha uhulumeni onamandla kakhulu kuyilapho ulondoloza ukuzibusa kwezwe. Ikhambi kwakuyisimiso sokulawula nokuhlukanisa amandla. ISihlungu sasiyisimiso sokuhlehla esiqinile . [Njengango-"Sikhulu sokuhlehlela (indlu yomthetho yesizwe) neSithathu se-Fini-Fiflet-Diat [FOctiver] [3].[3] Umbuso wachaza uhulumeni wezwe lonke u-Alexander Hamian, u-Jay Dievelson ku-ficconome [[FLD: 0]

UMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo wanikeza uhulumeni kahulumeni (umz., ukuqopha imali, ukuqondisa ezentengiselwano zezwe, ukusakaza impi) futhi wagcina zonke ezinye zisezifundazweni. ISichibiyelweni seshumi, sagunyazwa ngo-1791, sagunyaza lendawo ngokuqondile: “Imibuso engaphathiswanga i-United States nguMthetho-sisekelo, noma inqatshelwe yiyo eUnited States, igcinelwe eUnited States ngokulandelana, noma kubantu.” Lenguquko iyisisekelo somthetho-sisekelo sobukhosi bezwe.

Ukubusa Okukabili Kuwumkhuba: Isimiso Sababusi Abahlukene

Kumthetho-mthetho-mthetho waseMelika, inkulumo ethi “ubukhosi obubodwa” futhi iyavela emongweni womthetho wobugebengu. I-Revine Jeopardy Claus yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu ivimbela umuntu ukuba avinjelwe kabili icala elifanayo ngombusi oyedwa. Nokho, ngoba uhulumeni nombuso ngamunye ungowodwa, bobabili bangamangalela umuntu ngesenzo esifanayo uma lokho kuphula umthetho wombuso nowombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, iphoyisa elisebenzisa amandla adlulele lingase libhekane namalungelo ombuso futhi libulale ngaphandle kokufaka izingozi eziphindwe kabili. Lemfundiso iqinisekiswe yiNkanto efanayo [[FLT:] enjenge-atlect: [FLD].[FLD] [FLD] [1985] futhi ihlala isikhulu semithetho esigxekayo somthetho.

Amandla Angokomoya: Anemizwa, Asetshenziswa, Futhi Azalwa Nawo

Ukuqonda lezi zigaba kubalulekile ekuqondeni imingcele yezenzo zesizwe.

Amandla Atholakele

Imibuso emisiwe yileyo ehlelwe ngokucacile eMthethweni, ngokuyinhloko eSiphakamisweni I, Ingxenye 8. Ebaluleke kakhulu ihlanganisa:

  • Amandla e [[QL:0] intela futhi asetshenziselwa inhlalakahle evamile.
  • Amandla e [[QT:0] ahlanganisa i-interstate nentengiselwano yangaphandle.
  • Amandla [[QUL:0] ahlanganisa impi [ aphakamise amabutho.
  • Amandla emali [[QL:0] eyimali [ futhi alawula inani layo.
  • Amandla okumisa amahhovisi eposi nemigwaqo.
  • Amandla okunikeza imvume yalabo abagunyaziwe nababhali abasemthethweni.

Lamagunya, nakuba elinganiselwe, aye ahunyushwa kabanzi. I-Commerce Claus, ikakhulukazi, iye yaba yindawo yokulwela ukuchaza ukufinyelela kwegunya likahulumeni. Kusukela ku- Gibbons v. Ogden [1824] [1824] ku-[FLT] Wickard v. Filburn[ [1942] ku-United States v. Lopez [195]] [195]), iNkantolo i-oslve i-oclated ifunda.

Amandla Asetshenziswayo NoKhisimusi Odingekile Nofanele

Isigaba sokugcina seSiphakamiso I, iSiqendu 8 sinikeza uKhongolo-mthetho amandla “okwenza yonke imithetho edingayo nefanele ukuthatha amagunya angenhla.” Lesi sisho, esaziwa ngokuthi u-Faned noFanety Claus (noma i-Ellastic Claus), sivumela uKhongolo ukuba lumise imithetho egunyazwe amandla adwetshiwe. Icala eliphakathi liyi [[FL:0] MCulloch v. Maryland[FLT:] [18], lapho uMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall asho khona ukuthi “amandla entela ahilela amandla okubhubhisa” futhi ukuthi uhulumeni ungasebenzisa kungasho ukuthi awukhonzile umthetho. Lesinqumo sisungulile ukuchaza okukhulu [ukusekela okusekela indalo, izinhlangano zesizwe eziningi, nezinhlangano zesizwe eziningi.

Amandla Emvelo

Imibuso engokwemvelo yileyo eyiyo yanoma yiliphi izwe elizimele, ngisho noma ingashiwonga ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo. Lemibuso ihlobene ngokuyinhloko nezindaba zakwamanye amazwe nokulondeka kwesizwe, kuhlanganise namandla okuthola indawo, ukuqhuba izingxoxo, nokuvikela isizwe. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela amandla efa ezindaweni ezinjenge United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp. (1936), eyayikholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe uhulumeni wezwe uphethe “amandla athathwe eqinisweni ukuthi iUnited States iyisizwe esisebukhosi phakathi kwezizwe.”

Ababusi Bakahulumeni: IZigcinelwe, Amaphoyisa Nanamuhla

ISichibiyelo seshumi siyi-ankile yomthetho-mzimba-siseko yegunya lezwe. Ngalé kwegunya elibekelwe, kunezimo ezilawulayo ezibanzi .

Izibonelo Zababusi Bombuso Abangokwesiko

  • Imfundo: Izwe limisa izindinganiso zezifundo, izikole zomphakathi, kanye nokulawula uthisha.
  • I-'transport':[ i-'mas' yakha futhi igcine imigwaqo emikhulu, imoto yokubhalisa, kanye nezincwadi zokushayela.
  • Usizo lwezentengiselwano: lwase-United States lugunyaza ochwepheshe bezokwelapha, lulawula izimakethe zomshuwalense, futhi luphatha izinhlelo ze-Medicaid.
  • Umthetho womkhaya:[ ubusa umshado, isehlukaniso, ukuwinwa kwabantwana, nokutholwa.
  • Umthetho womthetho oyimfihlo: Inqwaba yamacala obugebengu iyenzeka ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni.
  • Izinketho:[ amazwe anikeza ukhetho lwamazwe, umbuso, nolwendawo phakathi kwemingcele yomthetho-sisekelo.

Amandla Amanje: Igunya Elihlanganyelwayo

Kokubili ohulumeni bakahulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni bangasebenzisa amandla athile ngesikhathi esisodwa. Lamandla ahambisanayo ahlanganisa:

  • Amandla entela (amazwe akanakuwakhokha amathuluzi kahulumeni ngaphandle kwemvume).
  • Amandla okuboleka imali.
  • Amandla okumisa izinkantolo.
  • Amandla okuqasha amabhange nezinhlangano.
  • Amandla okumisa nokuphoqelela imithetho ngokuvamile.

Uma imithetho kahulumeni nombuso iphikisana, i-Supremacy Claus (Article VI, Claus 2) imisa umthetho kahulumeni. Lemfundiso ye] ikhulula [ ingachazwa (ISikhululo sisho ngokucacile ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uwephula umthetho wezwe) noma uhlongozwa (lapho umthetho kahulumeni uphazamisa izinhloso zikahulumeni noma uthatha insimu ngokuphelele).

Ukubonakaliswa KukaClaus Onedumela Elibi Nokukhohliswa

I-Supremacke imisa u-Claus woMthetho-sisekelo, imithetho kahulumeni yenza ukuba ulwenze lungavumelani, futhi izivumelwano zithi “uMthetho ophakeme weZwe.” Lokhu akuwucimi umthetho wezwe kodwa kuwuthobeli. Uma kuphakama izingxabano, izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uyadelwa. INkantolo Ephakeme iveze izici eziningana:

  • Intethelelo: Isikhongozeli sisho injongo yaso yokuhlenga umthetho wezwe ewumthetho.
  • Icushwa: i-Occurs uma umthetho kahulumeni ugcwele kangangokuba “ihlala ensimini,” ingashiyi gumbi lokuthatha isinyathelo sikahulumeni (isihlengo sensimu), noma lapho umthetho wombuso ukhona njengesithiyo ezinjongweni zombuso nezinjongo (ukuhlengwa).

Isibonelo esivelele yi- Arizona v. United States (2020), lapho iNkantolo yagadla khona izinhlelo eziningana ze-S.B. 1070 zomthetho wokufuduka ngenxa yokuthi umthetho kahulumeni wokufuduka wathatha insimu kanye namalungiselelo kahulumeni aphikisana nezinga lokugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni. Ngokuphikisanayo, ku Wyteth v. Levine [2009]), iNkantolo yalahla ukuthi imvume yelebula lika-FDA yegama elichaza ukuthi i-dictal elakhemist liyididelwe umthetho wesimusholo, igcizelela ukuthi ukulahlwa akuyona nje okungalula.

Izifundo zecala lezwe ezise-Federal-simo

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): INkantolo yathi iMaryland ayinakho ukukhokha iBhange lesibili lase-United States ngoba “amandla okukhokha intela ahilela amandla okubhubhisa,” futhi imibuso ayinakuphazamisa imisebenzi kahulumeni engokomthetho.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Inkantolo ichazwa kabanzi ngokuthi “ingxenye phakathi kwezifunda zikamasimu ezimbalwa” ukuhlanganisa ukuhamba ngemikhumbi, ukubulala isikebhe samalahle saseNew York kuphela nokuqinisekisa ukuphakama kukahulumeni kwezentengiselwano zamazwe.
  • United States v. Lopez (1995): ngokokuqala ngqá cishe emashumini ayisithupha eminyaka, iNkantolo yalinganisela igunya lezentengiselwano lika-Claus leNkantolo ngokulahla iSivumelwano seGun-Free School Act, ibusa ukuthi ukuphatha isibhamu endaweni yesikole kwakungalithinti kakhulu ibhizinisi lamazwe ahlukene.
  • NFIB v. Sebelius (202): INkantolo yasekela umthetho womuntu ngamunye we-Afford Care Act njengomthetho osemthethweni wokusebenzisa amandla okukhokha intela kodwa yaqeda ilungiselelo elidinga izifundazwe zokwandisa i-Medicaid njengempoqo yombuso.
  • [[NT:0] I-Murphy v. NCAA (2018): INkantolo yawisa i-Professional and Ametur Sports Proviction Act (PASPA), iphethe ukuthi yaphula imfundiso emelene nomyalo ngokunqabela izigaba ekubhejeni ezemidlalo ngokomthetho. Lesi sinqumo saqinisa isimiso sokuthi uhulumeni wezwe awunakuyalela izinqubo zomthetho we-progistrugist.

Izinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule Ezimpini Zokulwela Uhulumeni

Ukulinganisela kwamandla kahulumeni nombuso kuseyindawo yempi ephilayo yezombangazwe nengokomthetho. Izikhombo zamanje ezibonisa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okuqhubekayo kobukhosi obumbaxambili.

Ukunakekela Impilo Nomthetho Wokunakekela Ongadunyiswa

Ingxenye yokwanda kwe-MEdicaid yakha isibonelo esisha. NFIB v. Sebelius, iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi uMkhandlu wawungenakusongela ukususa [ yonke izimali zikahulumeni zeMedicaid uma imibuso yenqaba ukwandisa / okulingana nokuphoqelela. Nokho, ithi, ukunwetshwa kwemali kungathola izimali ezandisiwe. Namuhla, umsebenzi owenziwe ngengxenye wezwe nowenziwe nge-expaintstion ukhona, okuholela ekuhlukani kwemisebenzi. Lokhu kubambisana kwemithetho ehlangeneyo nokulawula ukulawula.

Ukufuduka Nokuphoqelelwa KoMbuso Endaweni Ezungezile

Ukuphoqelelwa kokuthunyelwa komthetho kungumthwalo wemfanelo kahulumeni, kodwa izimemezelo ziye zazama ukusiza noma ukuphazamisa. Imithetho enjenge-Arizona’s S.B. 1070 ne-Texas i-S.B. 4 iye yabekelwa inselele. INkantolo ePhakade kakhulu e] Asangara v. IUnited States[[FLT] isekela ubunhloko bezwe kodwa yashiya igumbi lokubambisana kwezindawo ezithile (umz., ifaka izikhulu zikahulumeni ngezindawo ezidingiswayo). Muva nje, izimpikiswano ezingaphezulu “artquary madolobha nemingcele ye-oglomentialbation jotivess jomes [v] i-octivesssss projectivessssssssss, i-octiveractiveltives, i-odviviced ye-om, i-odvividurativeltimentiant.[4] i-odvivivertivel

Ukubuyiselwa Kwendawo Ezungezile Namandla Ombuso

Amazwe avame ukusebenza njengezindawo zokucwaninga zokuhlola indlela yendawo ezungezile. Ngokwesibonelo, iCalifornia, imise izindinganiso eziqinile zokukhipha izimoto kunemithetho kahulumeni ngaphansi komthetho we-Ceally Air Act waiver. I-Trump yazama ukuxosha ukuthi i-waiverr, futhi i-Biden abaphathi bayibuyisela. AmaMassachusetts v. [[FLT: 1] [2001] [2007] [iNkakhulu], iNkantolo yathi i-EPA yayinegunya lokulawula amagesi ashisayo ngaphansi kwe-Eae Air Act.[3] E-BFT] i-FT [3] futhi iletha ukuhlasela okuvamile komthetho okumelene nezinkampani zamandla okushintsha isimo sezulu, futhi iNkakhulu yeNkantolo yesizwe incintinyeliswa yize noma i-mthetho. [inqulumo yomthetho eqhubekayo]

Ukuqashelwa Ngokomthetho Nomthetho Wesizwe

Naphezu kokuhlelwa kwenkasa yomthetho njengento elawulayo, inani elandayo lezifunda eziye zagunyaza ukwelapha nezokuzijabulisa. Uhulumeni kahulumeni uye wakugwema kakhulu ukuqungatha izivumelwano zikahulumeni (ngaphansi kweCole Memoness nesiqondiso esilandelayo), kodwa indawo engokomthetho ihlala ingenamgangatho. Rohrabaker-parber [ i-factormentment [[FLT] intencel] ivimbela uDepartment wezomthetho wezomthetho ukuba uphazamise imithetho yenkasangu, kodwa kumelwe ivuselelwe njalo ngonyaka. Le ndawo ibonisa ngokucacile igebe phakathi kwemingcele kahulumeni nemvume yemvume yemvume yesizwe] [FLT]Rokraberrabaker-fix enesimo sobukhosi obumbaxakile esingashintsha ngokushintsha kwemithetho ye-ombubhili ye-om.

Amalungelo Okuzala Nokwakhe

Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sibuyisele umbuzo wemithetho yokukhipha isisu ezindaweni. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuhlukanisweni okukhulu: amanye amazwe akhiqize cishe uvikelo oluphelele, kuyilapho amanye ekhiqize izimpi ezinkulu. Imithetho ephumela ekukhipheni izikhawu (umk., ngokuthatha imithi yokukhipha isisu isuka e-teleath nasekuhambeni) ivuse imibuzo ngemingcele yezwe. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekuvuselweni kwezwe elihlukene kakhulu: amanye amazwe akhiphe ukuvinjelwa okuseduze nakuphelele, kuyilapho amanye ekhiqize izivikelo ezinkulu. [i-Foctive: Fromease.] [evolation All Mediciation , ngokuvuse-meodrome.] [i-Appletic , i-partromeaner, eviced, ephikisa kakhulu, i-mmoslective.[5]

Imfundiso Emelene Nemithetho

Isilinganiso esiyinhloko samandla kahulumeni yimfundiso emelene nokuyalela: uhulumeni wezwe awunakuphoqelela ukuba kubekwe noma kunikezwe izimiso zokuqondisa zikahulumeni. Lesisimiso samiswa ku- New York v. United States, lapho iNkantolo yashaya khona umthetho kahulumeni ofuna amazwe ukuba athathe isiqu semfucumfucu ephansi yemisebe. Yaphinde yabekwa futhi . [United States] (1997), lapho amalungiselelo elulaza khona i-Brady Hand Devition Department (ult) Act eyagunyaza umthetho ogunyaza ukuhlolwa kwezwe nomthetho wendawo ukuba uhlole isizinda. Imfundiso yezombangazwe ivikela ukulandisa izikhulu nesithunzi.[FFoctivetionstion,[5]

Ubumbano lwe-Federalism ne-Grants-in-Aid

Ngalé kwempi, ohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni bamazwe basebenza ngokuphindwe kakhulu[[FLT: 1] ngesimiso sezenhlekelele. Uma kuqhathaniswa nezinhlelo zemali ezihlangene. Imali igeleza ukuya ezifundeni zemigwaqo emikhulu, (umz., iSihloko Esinikayo), impilo yomphakathi (umz., iMedicaid), kanye nenhlekelele. Ukubuya, kuvumelana ukulandela izindinganiso ezithile zikahulumeni othile. Le mithetho yesizwe, ngezinye izikhathi ebizwa ngokuthi “i-cakenolist,” ifinyeza imigqa yobukhosi. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi ivumela uhulumeni wesizwe ukuba uthobe umthetho ngaphezu kokuhlelwa kwamandla awo. Ukusekela isilinganiso sezinkinga zezwe lapho isesimweni esithile. Inkantolo ifaka imingcele ethile, njengoba ibeke i-Calmovement, ngokwezilinganiso ze-Calcreast [2] [5], i-DoFoctive:[3] isekela isilinganiso semikhampatho yombuso wezimo yokwenyuko yotshwala, nakuba ingunyaka evuma kakhulu, noma isikhulu seze isilinganiso sezikhathi seze izi

Isiphetho: Ukucindezeleka Okuhlala Njalo Kobukhosi Obubodwa

Ubuhlobo phakathi kwemibuso kahulumeni nezwe abunakunyaka; buyashintsha nenkathi yesizukulwane ngasinye engokwezombangazwe nencazelo yokwahlulela. Abahleli baklama isimiso sokubusa okumbaxambili ukuze bavikele inkululeko futhi bathuthukise ukubusa okuphumelelayo, kodwa futhi badala uhlelo olukhuthaza iSiphendulo seshumi, iSiphendulo seSikhathi sobuzwe, nemfundiso emelene nenkolo yezempilo yamanje, ukuthutha nokukhipha isisu, kulokhu kuphikisana. Njengoba umphakathi ushintsha ushintsho, kanjalo, ukulinganisela kwemithetho yemithetho kuhlala kuphikisana. Ukuqonda izisekelo zomthetho-sisekelo (* ezibekwe futhi zisho ukuthi zimele ukubusa, iSiphenduko, iSiphenduko se-Sumacree, futhi i-diocentie, futhi i-a komiti yokulawula imfundiso elawulayo, i-asmodurals awenziwahlulwayo kanye ne-injini we-injini ye-argostle.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola [[FLT][FONT:1] I-Anvocation ekuhlaziyweni okunegunya kwe-regitation ngayinye, [[[FLT]][FLT]] [[FLT]] i-Constitution Informationism [[FLT]], kanye nemibono yeNkantolo engenhla ekhonjwe ngenhla [FLT:][FLT][FLT]][FLT:][FLT]][FLT]