Amalungelo ommangalelwa afana nesisekelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika, eqinisekisa ukuthi abantu babhekene nombuso kahulumeni ngezivikelo zemvelo nezivikelo ezingokwemvelo. Ngaphakathi kwalamalungelo kukhona i-Curvement Clause, etholakala kumaSivumelwano eSikhundla Sesihlanu neseshumi Nesine. Lesisimiso sivikela ekumelaneni nomthetho wombuso ngokufuna ukuba abantu bathathe isaziso ngokulunga, isaziso, nethuba elibalulekile lokuzwakala. Ukuhlola okulandelayo kulandelela imisuka, izakhi, kanye nezinhlelo zanamuhla ze-CYCreate Move Process Claus, kugxile endleleni ekwakheni amalungelo ekwahlulelwe ubugebengu.

Umsuka Nezisekelo Zomthetho - sisekelo

Umqondo wenqubo efanele wangaphambi kwenqubo egunyazwe nguMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S., ovela eMagna Carta isiqinisekiso sokuthi “akekho umuntu okhululekile oyoboshwa... ngaphandle kwenqubo engokomthetho yontanga yakhe noma umthetho wezwe.” ISichibiyelo sesihlanu, esigunyazwe ngo1791, sagunyaza lesi simiso sikahulumeni kahulumeni:“ Akukho muntu... oyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Ngemva kweMpi Yombango yomphakathi, iSichibiyelo sesine seMithelo sanwe sanwe sanweba imfutho efanayo ezifundazweni. Ndawo yonke lemiya imisa inqubo edingayo: inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho phambi kokuncishwa, nenqubo eyisisekelo, evimbela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo engokomthetho esetshenziswayo ewuhulumenini.

Inqubo elindelekile yokujula

Inqubo efanelekile edinga noma yisiphi isenzo sikahulumeni esincisha umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla sandulelwa izinqubo ezanele. Ezicabeni zobugebengu, lokhu kuguqulela emvuthwaneni wamalungelo aklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuqulwa kobulungisa. INkantolo Ephakeme isekela ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi “izimfuneko ezingaphansi” zihlanganisa:

  • Notice yamacala kanye nohlobo lwemicimbi.
  • [A ukuqulwa kahle phambi kwenkantolo engathathi hlangothi nengakhethi.
  • Ithuba lokunikeza ubufakazi kanye nokunqamule i-examine yofakazi abangathandeki.
  • [[UMTH:0] I-pagel i- ephumelela, uma kudingekile, i-module.
  • A isinqumo esisekelwe kuphela ebufakazini nasemthethoni ebekwe ezindlebeni.

Lezi zici aziyona imigomo engaqondakali; ziye zasetshenziswa futhi zacwengisiswa ezimweni eziningi. Ngokwesibonelo, ku- Goldberg v.Kelly (1970), iNkantolo yathi abamukela inhlalakahle ababhekene nokukhishwa kwezinzuzo banelungelo lokuzwa ngokusobala phambi komenzi wesinqumo ongathathi hlangothi. Nakuba indaba yomphakathi, ukucabanga kwemizwa emongweni wobugebengu, igcizelela leyo nqubo efanele evumelanayo kodwa ifuna ukushintshwa.

Ilungelo Lokunikeza Iseluleko: UGideyoni noWainwright

Mhlawumbe inqubo efanelekile ebusayo ephawuliwe kakhulu yi- Gedeon v. Wainwright (1963). UClarence Gideon, umlawuli ompofu, wamangalelwa ngokuphula nangokungena egumbini le-parrome eFlorida. Wanqabela ummeli ngoba umthetho waseFlorida kuphela owanikeza iseluleko secala lenhloko yecala, uGideyoni wazivikela futhi walahlwa icala. Ejele, unikeza isicelo eNka iNkantolo Ephakeme, uphikisa ngokuthi iSinyundelo seSithandathu sasiyisisekelo seseluleko futhi sisetshenziswa ezizweni nge-Creastem Proces Claus. Inkantolo yavuma kanye, ngesinqumo sasokuqala [FOLD:] Bretts. v[FT] [FT] [12] [192]

Ukubhekana Nokuqulwa Kwecala Okusheshayo

ISixth Isichibiyeli siqinisekisa “ukuquliswa kwecala nomphakathi,” isivikelo esifakwe ezizweni ngeSichibiyelo se-Gradition ye-145's Access (Inqubo ka-Claus ye-Claus ye-Createment). Ilungelo lifeza izithakazelo eziningi: ukuvimbela ukuvalelwa kwangaphambi komthetho okunganqunyiwe, ukunciphisa ukukhathazeka nokungaqiniseki komphakathi okuhambisana namacala, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi ubufakazi abunakali ngesikhathi. [[FLLT:0] Barker v. Wingo [7] [7], iNkakhulu leNkanto yamukela ukuvivinywa okulinganiselwe okuthwesa izicine: ubude besikhathi, isizathu sokulibala, ukukhokhwatshwa kwecala, nokucwa kommangalelwa. Ukwenziswa unyaka owodwa ngokudlulayo kucatshangelwa, kodwa umthwalo uyaqhubeka uyaqhubeka ukuboniswa kwesilinganiso sokuvunyelwa kwemithetho ye-hulumeni. Umthetho umthetho owe-1964]

Isivikelo Engozini Ephindwe Kabili

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu sithi akekho umuntu “ozobekwa engozini efanayo yokufa noma ukufakwa esithweni.” Lesisivikelo, senziwa ukuba sisebenze ezifundazweni Bhenton v. Maryland [[1969], uvikela abamangalelwa ekumangalelweni okulandelanayo noma izijeziso ezilandelanayo. Izikhala ezibekwayo zifakwa engcupheni yecala elifanayo. Imali ebekwe egabeni ngemva kokugwetshwa, ngemva kokukhohliswa (ukunxusa ngomShoxiwa), futhi ezimweni ezilinganiselwe ngemva kokumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yomSholi. Ngokubalulekile, “ukunye ukuqulwa kwecala” kuhlola ukuthi ubugebengu obunye abudingi ubufakazi besinye isici sengxenye [FLT] [FF] [FFF: [FFF]

Inqubo Eyinqaba Namalungelo Ayisisekelo

Nakuba inqubo efanelekile yokuhlela ibusa yesenzo sikahulumeni, inqubo efanelekile engaphansi kwe- ilinganisela ukuthi yikuphi .ukuqukethe kwemithetho ephazamisa inkululeko eyisisekelo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaveza amalungelo athile ‘ ngokujule kakhulu emlandweni namasiko alesi sizwe kangangokuba afanelwe isivikelo esengeziwe. Kulokhu kumangalelwa, inqubo efanele kuhulumeni ingalilahla ikhono lokwenza ubugebengu ekuziphatheni okuthile noma ukubeka isijeziso esithile.

  • u-authoric [ - kuyaqashelwa ku- [FLT]Griswold v.Connecticut [1965] futhi wakhuliswa Roe v. Wade[ [197])] kanye
  • ekugcineni komzimba [ - imingcele isho ukugxambukela emzimbeni womuntu, njengokuhlinza okuzenzekelayo noma imithi ephoqelelwe (bona Shashington v. Harper[[FLT] [1990])).
  • Ifanele kumzali futhi ikhulise izingane - kuyathinteka emacaleni ahilela ukunqanyulwa kwamalungelo omzali noma ukususwa kwezingane ekhaya.

Inqubo efanele engaqondakali iyaqhubeka iphikisana, lapho abagxeki bephikisa bethi ukwahlulela kudinga ukuphanjwa. Noma kunjalo, kuhlala kuphoqelelwa izishaya - mthetho futhi kuvikelwe abantu ngabanye emithethweni ecindezelayo — kuhlanganise nalezo ezingase ziphule ukuziphatha kwabantu abadala noma zivimbele ukuzibusa komuntu siqu ngezindlela ezicasula ukungakhethi okuyisisekelo.

Amacala Abonisa Ukuthi Amalungelo Asolwa

Izinqumo eziningana zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zashintsha indlela amalungelo abamangalelwa abekwe ngayo ngokusebenzisa i - Status Process Claus emikhosini ethile yamaphoyisa nasemicikilishweni ethile yokushumayeza. Lamacala abonisa ukuchaza okuchaza ukuthi yini “esandulela" efunwayo lapho kuphenywa ubugebengu obungokoqobo kanye nokuqulwa kwecala.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): Ukubusa Kwe - Exclousionary

Ngaphambi kokuba , ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuhlola okungekho emthethweni bungasetshenziswa ekumangalelweni kukahulumeni. Ikhaya likaDollree Mapp lahlolwa ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni ngokuphathelene nokuqhunyiswa kwebhomu; amaphoyisa athola izinto ezingcolile, abekwa icala ngazo. INkantolo Ephakeme yalahla ukuthi umthetho weSichibiyelo Sesine (Izimemezelo zeSimemezelo) ubambe ubufakazi obungekho emthethweni − i-applies ezindaweni ze-Inimagnetic Programme. IJalark Clark yabhala ukuthi “izelelwe imfuneko yobuqotho bomthetho” ayidingi ukulahlwa kwezinkantolo ezingekho emthethweni. Isinqumo esishicilelweyo, izikhulu zamaphoyisa ziphoqelele ukuthatha imvume noma ukuthatha ubufakazi obugxekayo.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Izixwayiso Zokungenela KweCustodial

Mhlawumbe indaba edumile ebangela ukuvunywa kwemibuzo, imanda v. I-Arizona yakhuluma ngesimo esihambisanayo sokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa. u-Erneto Miranda, indoda empofu negula ngokwengqondo, yavuma ekuthumbeni nasekudlwengulweni ngemva kwamahora okubuzwa ngaphandle kokutshelwa ukuthi wayenelungelo lokuthula noma lokubuza ummeli. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi ukuphenya kuyinto engokwemvelo; ngakho, ilungelo leNguqulo Yesihlanu lokuzisola ngokumelene nozibuyiselo ludinga ukuxwayiswa kwamalungelo [[FLT] ngaphambi kokuba atshelwe ukuthi u-FLT:] [FLT] ] ubuzekihlolo. INkakhulu liphethe inqubo yezempucuko neyathandwayo. [i-Dirvective]

I - Brady uMaryland (1963): Ubufakazi Bokuphenya

Inqubo elindelekile ifuna futhi ukuba abashushisi baveze ubufakazi obuhle komangalelwa. Brady v. Maryland, iNkantolo yathi ukucindezelwa kobufakazi obungokwezinto ezibonakalayo kuphoqelela ukunikeza izitatimende, amabhukwana, noma ukuhlola imiphumela edingayo, noma ukuveza imiphumela edingayo “lapho ubufakazi buyizinto ezinecala noma isijeziso.” [[FLT:] BRAdy umthetho oqhubekayo kubashushicileli ukuba baphendule noma yini engasiza ekuvikeleni. Izinhlelo zanamuhla zihlanganisa ubufakazi obunganikezeli, obunganikezeli ukwaziswa, futhi zisebenzelana nofakazi ababambisana. [FLD:] [FLT] [FFFFF:FF] [FFF]]

Batson . Kentucky (1986): Ukuqeda Ubandlululo Lobuhlanga Ekukhetheni IJury

Ilungelo lokukhetha lineze uma abashushisi bengayikhipha inyumbazane ngenxa yohlanga kuphela. ku-Batson v. Kentucky[, iNkantolo Ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi ukusebenzisa izinselele zokukhulula ezisekelwe kuhlanga ezisekelwe ekuhlahleni kwe-Foctal Protection Claus, okungagunyazwayo enqubeni efanelekile yokulingwa kobugebengu. INkantolo imise uvivinyo oluthathu: (1) ummangalelwa kumelwe enze icala lobandlululo lohlanga; (2) umshushisi kumelwe anikezele incazelo yohlanga nge-neutral; (3) uma ijajiji enquma ukuthi incazelo ingeyena. [FLT:][FFF] [FF3] [5]

Inqubo Efaneleyo Esimisweni Sokwahlulela Ngesigebengu Sanamuhla

Izimiso ezibekwe kahle emacaleni aphawulekayo zisebenza ezindaweni ezihlukene kakhulu ezihlala abantu abalwayo. Icala elikhulu alilokothi liqulwe; ukunxusa kwezikhulu, futhi ukuvalelwa kwangaphambi kwecala kuvamile. Inqubo igxile kakhulu ezinqubweni ezenzeka esikhathini eside ngaphambi kwesinqumo.

I - Plea Barganing Ne - Waiver Yamalungelo

Abangaphezu kuka-95% begunyazwa yi-operations nohulumeni babangelwa ukuncenga kunokulingwa. Inqubo efanelekile inamandla. Ukunxusa okunecala kulula ukulahla wonke amalungelo okuqulwa kwecala: ilungelo lokululeka, lokuxabana, lokuphikiswa, lokuthula. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaphikelela ukuba izicelo zibenokwazi, ngokuzithandela, futhi zihlakaniphe, kodwa ukucindezelwa kokubhekana nesigwebo eside uma ubekwa icala likhona kungaphoqa abamangalelwa abangenacala ukuba bamangalelwe icala ukuba balwele icala, futhi bahlulele isigwebo. [[FLT:] Icala laziwazi njengesijeziso. [[FLT:]] Lafler v. [1] ukucindezela kokusebenza, [FLT:] u-Miris v.[FFFFFF]] [FFY2]]

Ukutholakala Nobufakazi Obuhlobene

Ngalé Brady, imithetho yanamuhla yokuthola ihluka kakhulu ngokwesimiso. I-Federal Migal of Criminal Procediture ifuna abashushisi ukuba badalule izitatimende zommangalelwa, ezigciniwe, nezincwadi kanye nezinto zendaba eqoshiwe, kanye nobufakazi obuyingcaciso. Imibuso eminingi inemithetho ebanzi ngokufanayo “ihele lokuvula”. Nokho, imiyalo evikelayo, nesilinganiso esikhulu sobufakazi bemidwebo yezimiso zingavimbela ukufinyelela okunenjongo. Inqubo ye-" ilula uma ummangalelwa engenalo wobulungisa efuna ukubukeza ubufakazi phambi kokuba anqume ukuthi uyancedwa noma uyalingwa. Imibuso ethile ikhulume ngale “iziqondiso zokuvikela, futhi i-6 ingenza ukuba intetheleleke kahle, kodwa inqululo enziswa yimfanelo enziwa kakhulu lapho inguhulumeni iveza ngokulingana nesibopho sayo.

Ukujeziswa Nokungafani

Inqubo elindelekile ayipheli ngokuqiniseka. ISichibiyelo seSisithupha sokulunga kwecala ([FLT:][FLT]1], 2000 [ibhekiswe kuhulumeni ngeSichibiyelo se 144]. Iqiniso lokuthi noma iliphi elindisa isigwebo se-state yomthetho kumelwe litholakale ngejaji elingaphezu kokungabaza okunengqondo (]]] Applendi v. New Jersey[FLT][FLT]], 2000]). Ngokufanayo, [ [Miller v. Alabama[[FLT]]] [202] isinqumo esithi ukuva ukuthi ukuphila okuyisibopho ngaphandle kwe-parlevereauauassss siphula imingcele yemithetho yeSichithi se-8 [intshinga] inse inse inselele inselele inqubo yonyaniso emisha engokomthetho emisha ukuba ikhiphe isijeziso esiqinile, kodwa iphinde ihlole ukuthi ikhiphe ikhiphe imposo esemthethweni esiqinile, noma iphinde iphinde ikhiphe ikhiphe ikhiphe impo

Izinselele Zesikhathi Esizayo

Naphezu kwamakhulu eminyaka entuthuko yezimfundiso, isithembiso senqubo efanele sisafezeka ngokungaphelele. Izingcindezi zanamuhla ``iziboshwa', ukungaxhaswa kwemali okunganele ukuze kuvikelwe izikhali, nokushintsha kwezobuchwepheshe okusheshayo) kuhlola imingcele yesiqinisekiso soMthetho-sisekelo.

Ukucwasana Okukhulu Nezinhlanga

I-United States ibopha abantu abangaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-1.2, izinga eliphindwe kahlanu kuya kweyishumi kwelomanye amazwe athuthukile. Abamnyama baboshwa cishe ngokuphindwe kahlanu ngenani labamhlophe baseMelika. Lokhu kuhlukana akuwona nje umphumela wamazinga ahlukene abangela ukucasuka; babonisa ubandlululo olusemqoka ekubuthweni kwamaphoyisa, ukuphoqelela, ukuqiniseka, nokugweba okungaphula isivikelo esifanayo senqubo efanelekile. INkantolo Ephakeme iyavuma ukuthi ubandlululo lwezinhlanga ekukhetheni abahluleli, ikakhulukazi, lululaza ukuthemba umphakathi ezinkantolo. Kodwa ikhambiso lilinganiselwe, futhi izinga elikhulu lokuthuthwa kweziboshwa likhulisa ukukhathazeka okufaneleyo ukuze kwenziwe kube nokusebenza kahle futhi kufunwa kwezombangazwe ngenxa yobugebengu obunzima.

Ukuzivikela Okungenamsoco

Ilungelo lokuyaleza liyicala uma ummeli omisiwe ethwele kanzima, engasebenzi. Amahhovisi amaningi omphakathi avikela athwala amacala angamakhulu amaningana e-feloni ngonyaka, ashiya isikhathi esincane sokuhlola, ukuxhumana kwekhasimende, noma ukulungiselela. INkantolo ePhakamileyo imise isiqobo sokuqinisekisa ukuthi usizo olungaphumeleli ([] SSrickland v. Washington, 1984), ifuna kokubili ukwenza okungafanelekile nokungathandeki nokucwasanayo. Ukuhluleka kwesimiso sokusebenza kwezelulekwa okuko okukodwa. Inqubo yezimiso zokusebenza kwezezimali nezokulungisa izivumelwano zenkantolo ezingokomthetho (injini). Nokho, i-Lounicesternton, iyakuhlala intenga, futhi ibhucutheliswa ngokufanelekile, ukukhokhwaza kwezelelwe kwezezombangazwe.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezinga Lobuchwepheshe

Ubuchwepheshe bezezinombolo buletha izinsongo ezintsha enqubweni efanelekile. Ukusetshenziswa kwamaphoyisa ama-GPS, izilinganiso zengqamuzana, i-athom ye-octal ezenzekelayo, kanye ne-algorithism yobuso ingagwema izimfuneko ezingokwesiko zemvume nezizathu ezilindelekileyo. Karpaent v. I-United States [208], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi ukufinyelela ingqamuzana-le yendabuko ye-odwa kwakhiwe nge-odwa kuhlanganisa ukuseshwa kweSine seSichibiyelo esidinga isiqinisekiso. Isinqumo sincike kakhulu embonini nasezemfihloselwe inqubo efanele. Kodwa ubuchwepheshe obuningi[FLT][FLD][FLD] buyebosting [2010] [2010] [2010] ukuhlola nokubikezela i-odcultrasestions. Abamele ukuvuzimfundayo noma ukumiswa kwe-odansime. Abamele ukumiswa kwe-olimgalelo olusemthethweni ba

Gcina inqubo elindelekile yesikhathi esizayo

I-Gast Procession Claus ayiziqedi; idinga ukuqapha okuqhubekayo ezinkantolo, izishayamthetho, nezakhamuzi. Amalungelo ommangalelwa anamandla kuphela njengezinqubo eziwaphoqelelayo. Enkathini yokunxusa, ukubopha inqwaba yabantu, nobulungisa be-algorithm, inselele ukuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo ihlala inenjongo. Izinguquko eziningana zingasiza:

  • [[UMTL:0] Isikhwama esigcwele sezimiso zokuzivikela [ ukunciphisa izimpahla ezifakwa emacaleni futhi uqinisekise ukuthi ummangalelwa ngamunye uthola ukumelelwa okuphumelelayo.
  • [ Imithetho yokuthola eqinile[ futhi ibeke izijeziso ekwaphukeni [[FLT]].
  • CPUI ukubonakala ngaphaya kwamandla e-algoriths esetshenziswa ekwahluleleni kobugebengu, kuhlanganise nokugunyaza okuphoqelelwe kanye nokufinyelela kwabamangalelwa ukuze bancintisane nokunemba kwabo.
  • ukwandisa ukusetshenziswa kwezinhlelo zokuzilibazisa nezinkantolo ezihlukile ukunciphisa ukuthembela ekuboshweni kwamacala aphansi.
  • Ukuhlanganisa ulwelo lomphakathi oluvikelayo-ne-prosecutar ukusebenzisa ukuzimisela komphikisi wecala kwasekuqaleni kanye nemithetho elandelwayo yobufakazi ehlonipha inqubo efanele.

Ekugcineni, i-System Processol Claus ihlanganisa isibopho sokuzibopha umuntu ngamunye kanye nomthetho. Ayiqinisekisi ukuthi umuntu onecala uyolahlwa, kodwa igcizelela ukuthi icala kumelwe lifakazelwe ngezinqubo ezibonisa ukuhlonipha ummangalelwa njengomuntu, hhayi ingozi okumelwe ilawulwe. Njengoba isimiso somthetho waseMelika siqhubeka sizivelela, lesosibopho sisalokhu sibalulekile namuhla njengasemakhulwini eminyaka ngaphambi kokuba kubhalwe uMthetho-sisekelo.

Ukuze ufunde okwengeziwe emlandweni kanye nokusebenza kwenqubo efanele, bheka i-Cornell Information comprection, umbhalo ogcwele we Gedeon v. [[FLT:][FLT]] [[FLT:] [[4] ku-[FLT:] [FLT] , [[FLT]]], [[FLT]] ne-] Marand v. Arizona[FT:] [FLT] [FLT]] isinqumo senani. [FLT] [FFLT:]