I-Blueal Constitution: Ubulungisa nenkululeko embonweni waseMelika Osunguliwe

Isiqalo somthetho-mthetho we-United States singaphezu nje kokuvulwa kwemikhosi; siyisimemezelo esinamandla senjongo esiye saveza izimiso eziyisisekelo isizwe esakhiwa kuzo. Phakathi kwezindinganiso zaso ezihlala njalo kukhona ubulungisa no [[FLT]] [i] intengo eguqula idemokrati , imiqondo eye yaguqula i-Melika yentando yeningi emakhulwini amabili eminyaka. Lemiqondo ayikho ngokuzihlukanisa kodwa yakha uhlelo oluhlangene oluqondisayo, umthetho, nokuhleleka komphakathi. Ukuqonda indlela iProgtion esungula ngayo ubulungisa nenkululeko yembula ukujula kwefilosofi yomthetho kanye nenkululeko yayo emphakathini wanamuhla.

Abakhi be-Frame babeyilungisa ngokunakekela ngamabomu, beyibeka njengelens okufanele wonke uMthetho-sisekelo ufundwe ngayo. Amabinzana anjengethi "Ubulungisa obumisiwe" no"ukulondoloza izibusiso zeNkululeko" ayengenamcimbi kodwa izibopho ezibophayo zokuthi uhulumeni omusha ubophekile ukuba asekele. Lezi zibopho zavela kokuhlangenwe nakho kokubusa kwamakoloni, lapho ubulungisa ngokuvamile babuye baphiwa khona ngokusemthethweni nangenkululeko ehlelekile. Ngakho i-Preaget imelela isithembiso esihlangene sokwakha umphakathi lapho ukulunga nenkululeko kungenamalungelo ezakhamuzi ezimbalwa kodwa amalungelo azo zonke izakhamuzi.

Isimiso Esiyisisekelo Sobulungisa

Ubulungisa, njengoba bubizwa kuyi-Pregary, bunencazelo ejulile ebanzi edlula kude nokusebenza kwezinkantolo namacala angokomthetho. Abaqondisi baqonda ubulungisa njengenzuzo ebanzi yezenhlalo eqinisekisa ubulungisa, ukulingana, nesivikelo samalungelo kuzo zonke izici zokuphila komphakathi. Lapho i-Pregagery imemezela inhloso yokuthi "uMahluleli oMhle," iveza umthwalo wemfanelo oqhubekayo kahulumeni wokwakha izinhlangano nemithetho ephatha wonke umuntu ngokungakhethi nangesizo.

Umlando ozungeze ukufakwa kobulungisa eGatshamini ubalulekile ekuqondeni ukubaluleka kwayo. Ngaphansi kokubusa kwamaNgisi, amaMelika ayebone lokho ayekubheka njengokungalungi okuhleliwe: intela ngaphandle kokuyimelela, ukuphenya ngokungemthetho, nokuqubuka okungahlolwanga ngokomthetho. ISimemezelo senkululeko sabala lezi zikhalo ngokuningiliziwe, sichaza indlela "ukulimala nokubuthwa" okwakuphula izimiso eziyisisekelo zobulungisa. Lapho amaFramens ehlangana ePhiladelphia ngo1787, ukumiswa kwesimiso sokulunga sikahulumeni kwakuphakathi kwezinto eziphambili.

Amathonya efilosofi esazimo sobulungisa kumaFramers ayehlukene futhi eyinkimbinkimbi. Izingqondo zokukhanyiselwa njengoJohn Locke zaphikisa ngokuthi uhulumeni ongokomthetho wawusekelwe ekuvumeni kwababuswayo futhi wawukhona ngokuyinhloko ukuze uvikele amalungelo emvelo. UBaron de Montesquieu wagcizelela ukubaluleka kokuhlukanisa imibuso kahulumeni ukuze kuvinjelwe ubushiqela futhi kuqinisekise ukuphatha umthetho ngokulunga. Lemibono ihlangene nokuhlangenwe nakho kwaseMelika kokuzilawula ngaphansi kweZihlobo zeZihloko zeConfederation, ezaziye zabonakala zibuthakathaka kakhulu ekumiseni ubulungisa beqiniso kuzo zonke izifunda.

Ubulungisa Nokubusa KoMthetho

Ekujuleni kwayo, ubulungisa obubonwa embukisweni budinga ukubusa komthetho i-—a isimiso lapho imithetho isebenza ngokulinganayo kubo bonke abantu, lapho izenzo zikahulumeni zicindezelwa khona ngemingcele engokomthetho, nalapho izingxabano zixazululwa ngezinqubo ezimisiwe hhayi ngamandla noma ngethonya. Umthetho udala ukuhleleka nokuzinza, ukwenze izakhamuzi zihlele ukuphila kwazo futhi ziqhube izindaba zazo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukugxambukela. Lesimiso sasiyinguquko enkathini lapho amakhosi ayengashintsha imithetho ngentando nangelungelo lezikhulu elivikelelwe emiphumelweni engokomthetho.

AmaFramers ahlanganisa izinqubo eziningi zokuqinisekisa umthetho wawuzogcinwa. UMthetho-sisekelo wamisa i-jaji elizimele, elivikelwe yizigqebhezana zikahulumeni, elalizochaza imithetho ngaphandle kokucindezela kwezombangazwe. Lachaza amandla egatsha ngalinye likahulumeni ngokuningiliziwe, lidala isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela okuvimbela noma isiphi isimiso esisodwa ekulawuleni ezinye. Yamisa futhi imingcele eqondile egunyeni likahulumeni, njengemithetho evimbela ukufinyelela ezikweletini zokukhokhwa nokuthatha imithetho yeposi, eyayiyimishini yokungabi nabulungisa kwezinye izizwe.

Lezisivikelo zokwakha zisabalulekile namuhla. ikomiti ezimele elawulayo iyaqhubeka isebenza njengomgcini wobulungisa, ibukeza imithetho nezenzo zikahulumeni zomthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo ziqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho awuwephuli amalungelo ayisisekelo futhi nezenzo zokuphatha zihlala ngaphakathi kwemingcele yomthetho-mthetho. Ukubusa komthetho, njengoba kumiswe ngoMthetho-sisekelo, kusho ukuthi ngisho nezikhulu ezinamandla kakhulu zingaphansi kokulandisa okungokomthetho futhi izakhamuzi ezivamile zime ngokubekela inseleleko yemithetho kahulumeni.

Ubulungisa Njengobulungisa Nokulingana

Isibopho sikaPresagery kubulungisa sihlanganisa futhi nokulunga komthetho ongaphansi endleleni imithetho ethinta ngayo amaqembu ahlukene emphakathini. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo ekuqaleni wawungenisa ubugqila futhi uphika abesifazane ilungelo lokuvota, isimiso sobulungisa esifakwe eSikhangisweni sanikeza isisekelo sokulungisa nokuthuthukiswa kwamalungelo omphakathi kamuva. IReconstructionons — iSimende seshumi elinesithathu, ishumi elinesine neshumi elinesihlanu — sandisa ngokucacile isivikelo somthetho kubantu ababegqitshwe izigqila, sigcwalisa isithembiso sobulungisa obuyi-Preplugation.

I-Umeal Protection Clause yeSichibiyelo se-14th Impatho-mvume imelela ukusetshenziswa okuqondile kwesimiso sobulungisa, okudinga ukuba amazwe aphathe bonke abantu ngokulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Lo mbhalo ubeyisisekelo sezinqumo zamalungelo abantu eziphawulekayo, kuhlanganise noBrown v. ibhodi yemfundo, eyabulala ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, ne-Obergefell v. Hodges, eqaphela ilungelo lomshado ofanayo. Lezi zinqumo zibonisa ukuqonda okukhulayo kwalokho okufunwa ngubulungisa, okusuka ekuqondeni okungokomthetho kuya embonweni ophansi kakhulu okhuluma ngokucwaswa ngomlando kanye nokungahleleki.

Ubulungisa ngomqondo womthetho-sisekelo busho futhi ukuthi i-procedal Performal — umqondo wokuthi izinqubo zomthetho kumelwe ziqhutshwe kahle ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni unciphe noma ubani ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. ISichibiyelo sesihlanu neseshumi nane nesokuthula siqinisekisa inqubo efanelekile yomthetho, idinga isaziso, ithuba lokuzwakala, futhi inkantolo elungile ngaphambi kwesenzo esingalungile sikahulumeni. Lesivikelo somthetho siqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa abenziwa nje kuphela kodwa bubonakala bungenziwa, kugcinwe ukuthenjwa umphakathi esimisweni somthetho.

Umsebenzi Oqhubekayo Wokumisa Ubulungisa

Ukusetshenziswa kwesenzo "sokwenza" kunendlela yokuthatha isinyathelo kubonisa ukuthi ubulungisa abusona isimo esikhona kodwa umsebenzi oqhubekayo odinga umzamo oqhubekayo. Isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sibhekane nezinselele ezintsha futhi sandise isigaba salabo abazuza ekwahlulelweni okulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Izimpikiswano ze-Contemporary mayelana nokuguqulwa kobulungisa, ukungalingani kwezomnotho, kanye namalungelo okuvota zonke zihlangene nokuzimisela kwesiqalo sokumisa ubulungisa ezimweni eziguquguqukayo.

Izinselele zanamuhla zobulungisa zihlanganisa ukwehluka phakathi kwesimiso sokwahlulela sobugebengu, lapho izici zezinhlanga nezomnotho zingathonya khona amazinga okuboshwa, ukukholisa, nemiphumela. Abasebenzi nabakhiqizi bemithetho baphikisana ngokuthi bangaqinisekisa kanjani ukuthi isimiso sokuphathwa ngokulingana siba ngokoqobo emikhubeni yamaphoyisa, izinqumo zomshushisi, nasezimweni zasejele. Isethulo sinikeza isisekelo somthetho-sisekelo sokuphoqelela ukuba lezi zimiso zisebenze ngokungakhethi okuqotho futhi kuqhubekelwe lapho zishiyeka khona.

Ubulungisa bezomnotho buye baba futhi inkundla ephawulekayo yokusebenzisa izimiso zezentengiselwano. Nakuba uMthetho-sisekelo ungaqinisekisi imiphumela ethile engokomnotho, isibopho sokumisa ubulungisa sisikisela ukuthi izimiso zomthetho nomnotho akufanele ziwaphazamise ngokuhlelekile amaqembu athile noma zibangele izimo zobumpofu obungapheli. Izimpikiswano mayelana nemithetho yeholo encishisiwe, ukufinyelela kwezempilo, isimiso sokuhlala, kanye nethuba lokufundisa konke kuthinta indlela ubulungisa obumelwe bufezeke ngayo emkhakheni wezomnotho.

Isimiso Esibalulekile Senkululeko

Inkululeko inendawo ebaluleke ngokulinganayo embonweni womthetho-sisekelo obekwe esanduleleni. AbaseFramers babefuna ukusekela izibusiso zeNkululeko kithi ngokwethu kanye nasemuva," beveza kokubili isibopho samanje nomthwalo wemfanelo wesikhathi esizayo owengeziwe ezizukulwaneni ezingakazalwa. Kulokhu inkululeko isho okungaphezu nje kokukhululeka ekuzithibeni; ihlanganisa amandla aqondile abantu ukuba baqondise ukuphila kwabo, benze ukukhetha okunenjongo, futhi bahlanganyele ekuzilawuleni.

Ukulwa kwamakoloni ngokuyisisekelo nokubusa kwaseBrithani kwakuphathelene nenkululeko. AmaMelika ayenqaba nje ukukhokha intela kodwa isimiso sokubuswa ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Bamelana nokufakwa kwezindawo zesifunda emadolobheni abantu, ukugxambukela kwezindlu zomthetho wamakoloni, nokunqatshelwa kwecala yijaji. Lezi zikhalo zabonisa ukuqiniseka okujulile ukuthi inkululeko yangempela yayidinga imingcele emandla kahulumeni nesivikelo sokuzimela komuntu siqu. Umthetho-Constitution, futhi ikakhulukazi i-Bill of Rights yanezelwa ngokushesha ngemva kokumiswa, yamisa lezisivikelo.

Ngobuphili, amaFramers adwetshwa esikweni elicebile lokucabanga ngenkululeko. Umbono kaJohn Locke wamalungelo angokwemvelo — ukukhululeka, nempahla i-— wabeka isisekelo senkululeko yokuqonda njengefa kubantu kunokuba inikezwe uhulumeni. Isiko lerepublic, elaziswa yimithombo yakudala nezazi zeNguquko, lagcizelela ukuthi inkululeko efuna izakhamuzi ukuba zihlanganyele ekubuseni nasekuvikelweni abanye. Lemicu ihlangene eMthethweni waseMelika ukuze yakhe inkululeko ehlukile yokuzibandakanya nenkululeko yokuhlanganyela embuthweni wenkululeko nenkululeko yokuzibandakanya neyo.

Inkululeko Ephambene: Ukukhululeka Embusweni Kahulumeni Ongaphezu Kwamandla

UMthetho-sisekelo uvikela lokho izazi zefilosofi okubiza ngokuthi inkululeko ephambene — inkululeko ekunqandeni kwangaphandle, ikakhulukazi okuphoqelelwe nguhulumeni. I-Bill of Rights ibala isivikelo esiqondile ekulawuleni amandla kahulumeni: inkululeko yokukhuluma, yokunyathelisa, yenkolo, neyokuhlangana; isivikelo ekufuneni nokuquleka okungenangqondo; ilungelo lokuphatha izikhali; ukuvikela ekuzinqandeni; ukuvikelwa ezimisweni zomthetho ezisemthethweni.

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala sibaluleke kakhulu ekuhleleni komthetho-mthetho wesigebengu. Inkululeko yokukhuluma iqinisekisa ukuthi izakhamuzi zingagxeka uhulumeni wazo, zisekele ushintsho lwezombangazwe, futhi zihlanganyele ekuhlongozeni ngentando yeningi ngaphandle kokwesaba isijeziso. Inkululeko yenkolo ivimbela uhulumeni ekumiseni isonto elingokomthetho noma ukuphazamisa imikhuba yabantu. Lenkululeko ayiyona i-&mdash ephelele; iNkantolo iye yaqaphela imingcele yokuhlanjalazwa, ukugqugquzelwa kobudlova, nokuhlanjalazwa kwe-— kodwa ijabulela isivikelo somthetho-m sisekelo esiqinile ngenxa yokuzifunela kwayo idemokrasi.

Amalungelo empahla nawo awela phakathi kwenkululeko ephambene. IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sinqabela uhulumeni ukuba athathe impahla yangasese ukuze asetshenziswe umphakathi ngaphandle kwembuyiselo, siqinisekise ukuthi abantu bangathola futhi balawule impahla ngaphandle kokuthatheka okuzenzekelayo. Lokhu kubonisa inkolelo yabaHluleli yokuthi ukuzimela kwezomnotho nenkululeko yomuntu siqu kwakuhlangene kakhulu nokuthi amalungelo empahla alondekile ayebalulekile kubo bobabili.

Inkululeko Eqondile: Inkululeko Yokuhlanganyela Nokuchuma

Umbono womthetho-sisekelo uhlanganisa futhi inkululeko eyakhayo — ikhono labantu ngabanye lokuhlanganyela ekulolongeni umphakathi wabo nasekuthuthukiseni amakhono abo. Ukubhekisela kwendatshana ekutholeni inkululeko "kuthi ngokwethu" kusikisela ukuthi inkululeko kumelwe ibe nenzuzo esebenzayo, hhayi nje ngokomthetho emibhalweni engokomthetho. Izakhamuzi kumelwe zibe nethuba lokuvota, ukuba nesikhundla, ukusekela imibono yazo, nokuhlanganyela ekuphileni komphakathi ukuze ziqaphele ngokugcwele.

Ilungelo lokuvota liyisisekelo senkululeko eqondile esimisweni saseMelika. Nge-francing, izakhamuzi zisebenzisa ubukhosi bazo futhi zigcine abameleli bazo benolandiso. Izinguquko zomthetho-mthetho ziye zanweba ilungelo lokuvota ngokuqhubekayo, zinqabela ukuphika okusekelwe ohlangeni, ebulilini, nasebudaleni balabo abaneminyaka eyishumi nesishiyagalombili nangaphezulu. I-Voting Rights Act ka-1965 yanikeza izimiso ezengeziwe zokuqinisekisa ukuthi isithembiso samalungelo okuvota saba yinto engokoqobo, ikakhulukazi ezakhamuzini zabamnyama ezindaweni ezaziye zavimba ukuvota okuncane kakhulu ngokomlando.

Inkululeko eqondile idinga futhi ukufinyelela imfundo, ukwaziswa, namathuba okuhlanganyela emphakathini. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi imfundo ibalulekile ukuze kube nempumelelo ekubeni isakhamuzi, futhi imithetho engokomthetho iqinisekisa izimiso zemfundo yomphakathi. Imithombo yezindaba ekhululekile, evikelwe yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala, inikeza izakhamuzi ukwaziswa okudingekile ukuze zenze izahlulelo zezombangazwe ezinolwazi. Izinhlangano, amaqembu afuna ukuthatha izikhundla, kanye namaqembu ezombangazwe konke kunengxenye ezisekelweni zenkululeko elungile ngokwenza kube nezenzo ezihlangene zezombangazwe.

Inkululeko Nomthetho - sisekelo

UMthetho-sisekelo uvikela inkululeko hhayi nje kuphela ngamalungelo acacile kodwa futhi nangelungiselelo lawo lokwakha. I-Federalism ihlukanisa amandla phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nezwe, idala izikhungo zegunya eziningi ezihlolana futhi zinikeze izakhamuzi ezinye izindlela zokuhlanganyela kwezombangazwe. Ukuhlukaniswa kwemibuso phakathi kwe-province, isikhulu, namagatsha okwahlulela kuqinisekisa ukuthi akukho nhlangano eyodwa ekwazi ukuhlanganisa igunya eliphakeme. I-Beaural idinga umthetho wokudlula emagumbini amabili ahlukene, ukunciphisa inqubo yomthetho kanye nokukhuthaza.

Lezi zivikelo zokwakha zibonisa ukuqonda komthetho ukuthi amandla agxile asongela inkululeko. ku-Federal No. 51 uJames Madison waphikisa ngokuthi "isikhundla kumelwe siwelwe ukulwa nesifiso sokuvelela," okusho ukuthi umklamo wenhlangano kufanele uvumelane nozithakazelo ukuze uvikele inkululeko. Ngokunikeza igatsha ngalinye izindlela zokumelana nokungezwani nabanye, uMthetho-sisekelo uveza isimiso sokuzilawula senkululeko esingancikile kuphela ekuvikeleni kwenkululeko.

IziHlumulo ze-Ninth ne-Tenth zigcizelela futhi ukuzinikela koMthetho-sisekelo ekukhululweni. ISichibiyelo se-Ninth sithi ukuhlelwa kwamalungelo athile kuMthetho-sisekelo akufanele kuthathwe njengokuphika noma ukuhlukanisa amanye amalungelo agcinwe ngabantu. Leli lungiselelo liqaphela ukuthi inkululeko eyisisekelo ingase ingabalwa ngokucacile kodwa ihlale ivikelekile. ISichibiyelo seshumi sigcinwe ezindaweni kanye nabantu abanegunya elingaphathiswanga uhulumeni, liqinisekisa ukuthi igunya likahulumeni lihlala lilinganiselwe futhi lingazama izindlela ezihlukahlukene zokuvikela inkululeko.

Ubuhlobo Obunamandla Phakathi Kobulungisa Nenkululeko

Ubulungisa nenkululeko, nakuba kokubili izindinganiso ezibalulekile zomthetho-sisekelo, ngezinye izikhathi zithatha izindlela ezihlukene, zidinga ukulinganisela ngokucophelela ezicini ezithile. AbaseFramers baqaphela ukuthi lezizimiso zingaphikisana futhi baklama isimiso somthetho-sisekelo esikwazi ukudlulisa izingxabano phakathi kwazo. Ukuqonda indlela ubulungisa nenkululeko ehlangene ngayo okubalulekile ekuchazeni uMthetho-sisekelo nasekusebenziseni izimiso zawo ezinkingeni zamanje.

Enye indawo lapho ukungezwani kuphakama khona ngenxa yemithetho yempilo yomphakathi neyokuphepha. Ngokwesibonelo, phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID-19, ohulumeni babeka imingcele emisebenzi yezebhizinisi, ubungako, nokuhamba ukuze balawule ukusakazeka kwegciwane. Lezi zinyathelo ezilinganiselwe kodwa zifanelekela ukuvikela impilo yomphakathi futhi ziqinisekise ukusakazwa okulungile kwemithombo yezokwelapha engavamile. Izinkantolo zahlola lemithetho engaphansi kwezindinganiso zomthetho, zidinga ukuba babe nesisekelo esiqinile futhi kwezinye izimo, zanelise ukuhlolwa okuqinile lapho amalungelo omphakathi ethwele umthwalo.

Ukulondeka kwesizwe kunikeza enye indawo lapho ubulungisa nenkululeko kumelwe ivunyelelwe khona. Izinhlelo zikahulumeni zokuhlola, ukuboshwa kwempi, nokuvikelwa ezikhumulweni zezindiza konke kulinganisela inkululeko ngezinga elithile lapho kukhonza isithakazelo sokuphepha nokulondeka esihlangene. UMthetho-sisekelo ufuna ukuba lemingcele ibe enengqondo, elinganayo, futhi iqondiswe amagatsha kahulumeni amaningi, futhi lapho kufanele khona ukubukezwa kokwahlulela. I-Freventer Intelligence Surveillance Act ne-USA PATT Act ibonise izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngokuphathelene nendawo okufanele ilinganiswe kuyo.

Ukulunga Njengesakhelo Senkululeko

Ubulungisa bunikeza uhlelo olubalulekile lwenkululeko engasetshenziswa ngalo ngendlela enenjongo. Ngaphandle kwesimiso somthetho esilungile esivikela amalungelo nokuxazulula izingxabano ngokungakhethi, inkululeko iguqukela ekubeni inkululeko enamandla kakhulu ukubusa ababuthakathaka. Ukubusa komthetho, isivikelo esifanayo, nokulunga kudala izimo lapho abantu bengasebenzisa khona inkululeko yabo ngaphandle kokwesaba ukugxambukela noma ukugxambukela ngokungenangqondo. Kulomqondo, ubulungisa abuphikisani nenkululeko kodwa buyisisekelo sawo esidingekayo.

Okuhlangenwe nakho okungokomlando kobugqila nokuhlukaniswa kubonisa lokho okwenzekayo lapho ubulungisa bunqatshelwa. Abantu abagqilaziwe bancishwa ngokuphelele, kodwa ngisho nezakhamuzi ezikhululekile zabaNsundu enkathini kaJim Crow zabhekana nemingcele ezinkululeko zazo ezazingakaze zibhekane nazo. Le mithetho yokuhlukanisa ilinganiselwe lapho zingahlala khona, zisebenze khona, futhi zingene esikoleni. Ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho evimbela ukuhlanganyela kwezombangazwe. Ubudlova nokungasatshiswa kwanikezwa isijeziso esingokomthetho esingadluliseli isivikelo esilinganayo kubo bonke abantu. Lomlando ubonisa ukuthi inkululeko engenabulungisa ingenanjongo futhi inkululeko yangempela idinga uhlelo olungokomthetho olulungile.

Izinkantolo ziye zaqaphela lokhu kuhlangana ezinqumweni ezichaza umthetho-sisekelo. KuShelley v. Kraemer, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaveza ukuthi ukugcinwa kwezivumelwano zezindlu ezivimbela uhlanga kwamisa isenzo sombuso sokwephula i-Exmedial Protection Claus, ziqaphela ukuthi inkululeko yokuvumelana ayinakuthethelela ukuqhubekisela phambili ubandlululo lobuhlanga. Muva nje, amacala ahilela imithetho yokuvota nokuzilahla adinga izinkantolo ukulinganisela inzuzo zenkululeko yabavoti ngokumelene nesidingo sokuqinisekisa ubuqotho obusemthethweni nokufinyelela imvume efanayo.

Inkululeko Njengenhlolo - vo Yobulungisa Obukhulu

Inkululeko futhi isebenza njengendlela enzima yokuhlola imibono yobulungisa engokobuzwe. Izikhulu ze-democratic zingamisa imithetho ebonisa ukuqonda kwazo ubulungisa kodwa ephula amalungelo ayisisekelo. Inkululeko yomthetho ivimbela iningi ekubekeni imingcele yentando yalo ezindaweni lapho ukuzibusa komuntu siqu kufanele kunqobe khona, njengenkolelo engokwenkolo, inkulumo yezombangazwe, nezinqumo ezijulile. Lo msebenzi wobuzwe ophikisanayo ubalulekile ekulondolozeni umphakathi lapho imibono ehlukene nezindlela zokuphila zingahlala khona.

IBhill of Rights ibeka imingcele eminingi kulokho okungenziwa abaphathi bentando yeningi ngomthetho. Ngisho noma iningi lezakhamuzi lingasekela umthetho odinga zonke izakhamuzi ukuba ziye ezinkonzweni zesonto lamaProthestani ngeSonto, iSichibiyelo sokuqala singasenqabela. Ngisho noma umuzwa othandwayo othandwayo wokucindezela ukugxekwa kukahulumeni, isiqinisekiso sokukhuluma ngokukhululekile singavimbela ukucushwa okunjalo. Lezi zinsizalo ziqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko ayingaphansi kwesifiso esithandwayo nokuthi amalungelo ayisisekelo ahlala elondekile kungakhathaliseki umbono womphakathi.

INkantolo Ephakeme ngezinye izikhathi iye yagxekwa ngokumisa imithetho ebekwe ngedemokrati, kodwa lendima ibaluleke kakhulu emklamweni womthetho-mthetho. Ngokuvikela inkululeko ngisho nasemagunyeni amakhulu athandwayo, iNkantolo iqinisekisa ukuthi isithembiso sendatshana senkululeko asiyekwa uma sesiya ngokufanelekile kwezombangazwe. Izinqumo ezivikela amalungelo abamangalelwa bezempakatho zezempango, iziphendu zezombangazwe, kanye neqembu elincane lenkolo konke kubonisa lomsebenzi obalulekile, ngisho nalapho lezo zinqumo ziphikisana.

Izithobo ze-ADN kanye nokuqhubeka

Izimiso zobulungisa nenkululeko ezibekwe kahle esanduleleni zisebenza kakhulu ezimpikiswaneni zomthetho nezezombangazwe zamanje. Isizukulwane ngasinye kumelwe sichaze futhi sisebenzise lezizimiso uma kucatshangelwa izimo ezintsha, ubuchwepheshe, nokuqonda ukulingana nenkululeko. IPregagry inikeza inkanyezi ewumthetho-sisekelo yasenyakatho engaqondisa ukucabangisisa ngendlela isizwe okufanele sibhekane ngayo nezinselele ezintsha.

Ubuchwepheshe nemfihlo kuveza enye yezinkundla ezibaluleke kakhulu zamanje zokusebenzisa izimiso ze-Preggy. Ukuhlola kwezezinombolo, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa yizinkampani zikahulumeni nezeziqu, kanye nokwanda kokuhlakanipha kokwenziwa kuphakamisa imibuzo enzima ngenkululeko nobulungisa. ISichibiyelo sesine sokuvikela ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo nokuquleka, ekuqaleni okwakheka ngenxa yokuphazanyiswa ngokomzimba, kumelwe kuvumelaniswe nenkathi lapho ukwaziswa okuningi komuntu kungaqoqwa, kuhlaziywe, futhi kugcinwe ngaphandle kokungena ngokoqobo.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yathatha izinyathelo eziphawulekayo zokusebenzisa isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo ezicini ze-octal. ERiley v. California, iNkantolo yathi iphoyisa ngokuvamile lidinga imvume yokuhlola okuqukethwe umakhalekhukhwini othathweyo ukuze uboshwe, iqaphela ukuthi ocingo banamuhla baqukethe ukwaziswa okuningi kakhulu okuthinta imfihlo yomuntu siqu. ECarpenter v. eUnited States, iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukufinyelela ukwaziswa okungokomlando kwendawo kwenza ukuba kufune imvume, kusetshenziswe isivikelo seSiphendulo sesine sezethu semishini yezemishini yokuhlola.

Inkululeko yezomnotho nobulungisa bezomnotho nakho kuye kwavela njengezindawo zempikiswano esebenzayo yomthetho-sisekelo. Imibuzo ephathelene nokufakwa kwemisebenzi, amalungelo empahla, nomthetho wezezomnotho iyaqhubeka iveza ukuhlaziywa nokukhulumela kwezazi. Abanye baphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo uvikela inkululeko eqinile yezomnotho elinganisela imithetho kahulumeni yezebhizinisi, kuyilapho abanye bephikisa ngokuthi amaqembu amakhulu entando yeningi kufanele abe nenkululeko enkulu yokulawula umsebenzi wezomnotho ekulandeleni ubulungisa nenhlalakahle yabaningi. Izibopho zeSikhalo sokuzibophezela kokubili ebulungisani nasenkonzweni zinikeza imithombo yokucabanga ngalemibuzo encintisanayo.

Ubulungisa Nenkululeko Yohlanga Ekhulwini Lama - 20 Lokuqala

Umzabalazo wokulingana ngokohlanga ulokhu uphakathi kwezindlela ezicindezela kakhulu zokusetshenziswa kwezimiso zendatshana. Naphezu kwentuthuko ephawulekayo kusukela i-Civil Rights Movement, ukwahlukana kwezinhlanga kuyaqhubeka emfundweni, emsebenzini, ekutholeni izindlu, ekunakekeleni impilo, nasesimisweni sokwahlulela kobugebengu. Ukuzimisela kweSingeniso ukumisa ubulungisa kudinga ukunakekelwa okuqhubekayo kulokhu kwahluka kanye nezimbangela zazo zokwakha.

Izimpikiswano zangesikhathi esidlule mayelana nokushintshwa kobulungisa nomthetho wobugebengu zihilela ngokuqondile imibuzo yobulungisa nenkululeko. Ukukhathazeka ngokusetshenziswa ngokweqile kwempoqo, ukuthumbana kwezinhlanga, nokugqunywa ejele kuye kwabangela ushintsho emikhubeni yamaphoyisa, izinqubo zokugweba, kanye nokuqapha. Lezimpikiswano zibuza ukuthi yini edinga ubulungisa esimisweni lapho ukuhlukana ngokohlanga kufakazelwa kahle khona futhi lapho izithakazelo zenkululeko zisengozini yakho kokubili izisulu zobugebengu kanye nalabo abamangalelwa ngobugebengu.

I-Hoder, eyabulala ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voing Rights Act, izifunda eziningi zamisa imingcele yokuvota abagxeki abathi ithinta ngokungenakuqhathaniswa abavoti abambalwa. Ukumiswa kwemithetho ye-ID yokuvota, ukususwa kwemivoti, nemingcele yokuvota kwasekuqaleni kanye neposi kuyaqhubeka kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuthi isithembiso somphakathi wobulungisa nokukhululeka sifezeka yini.

Umbono Ohlala Njalo Womthetho - sisekelo

Ukuhlelwa kwendatshana yokulunga nenkululeko kuseyinkulumo enamandla kakhulu yenjongo yomthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Lezizimiso azinikezi nje isisekelo esingokomlando kuphela kodwa zinikeza uhlelo oluphilayo lokuhlola imithetho, izimiso, nezenzo zikahulumeni. Njengoba isizwe sibhekana nezinselele ezintsha futhi siphikisana ngohlangothi lwaso lwesikhathi esizayo, iGqunulo linikeza isiqondiso esihlala njalo ngokuphathelene nezindinganiso okufanele ziphile ukuphila komphakathi.

Abaqondisi boMthetho-sisekelo baqonda ukuthi ukumisa ubulungisa nokuthola inkululeko kwakuyodinga umzamo oqhubekayo kuzo zonke izizukulwane. Abathi bawuphelelisanga umshado kodwa kunalokho baveza izinhlangano nezimiso ezingaqondisa intuthuko eqhubekayo. Ukubheka phambili kolimi lwe-&mdash kwakuqala kwakuqala thina kanye ne-Preservatity" — bavuma ukuthi umsebenzi wokwakha umphakathi olungile nokhululekile awusoze waphelela.

Imithetho nenkululeko ayiyona imiqondo efiphele yefilosofi kodwa izibopho ezisebenzayo okumelwe zifezeke ngemithetho, izinhlangano, nemikhuba yansuku zonke. I-Pregsion icela izakhamuzi nohulumeni ngokufanayo ukuba basekele lezizindinganiso futhi bagcine umphakathi wabo unomthwalo wokulandisa ezimisweni zawo eziphakeme. Ukuqonda ukujula nokuyinkimbinkimbi kwalezimiso, njengoba kuvezwe ngesiqalo nangomlando wezomthetho-sisekelo, kuhlomisela izakhamuzi ukuba zihlanganyele ngokucabangelana nokwentando yeningi futhi zinikele eproject yokwakha isizwe esilungile nesikhululekile ngokwengeziwe.

Umbono womthetho-mthetho wobulungisa nenkululeko ubekela amaMelika inselele yokuhlola ngokwethembeka izinhlangano zawo, ukulungisa ukwehluleka ukuphila ngokuvumelana nezimiso ezimisiwe, nokunweba izibusiso zenkululeko nokungakhethi. Lombono uye washukumisela izinhlangano zokuqeda, ukulahla kwabesifazane, amalungelo omphakathi, nezinye izimbangela eziningi eziye zandisa ukuma kwalabo abajabulela isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo. Izimiso zendabuko ziyaqhubeka zikhuthaza labo abafuna ukwakha umphakathi lapho ubulungisa nenkululeko zingokoqobo kubo bonke.

Ukuze bahlole ngokwengeziwe lezimiso zomthetho-sisekelo eziyisisekelo, abafundi bangahlola izinqolobane zesizwe zomthetho-sisekelo , i-Constitution Constitution Center , futhi abafundi bangahlola izincazelo zezwe ezinjengamaJack N. Rakove's izincazelo: ezezombangazwe ne-Ideas ekwenzeni umthetho-mthetho-mfastiki [. Lemitako inikeza incazelo ejulile yokuqonda indlela izibophonopho kubulungisa nenkululeko ebumbene futhi iqhubeke ngayo i-democralitual.