ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: INsika Yokulingana KwaseMelika

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo se-United States singenye yezindlela eziphambili ezilandelanayo nezivame ukuchazwa ngomthetho waseMelika. Nakuba injongo yaso yayiwukuvikela amalungelo abantu ababegqilazwe ngemva kweMpi Yombango, ukubuyisana kudlulele kakhulu ekuqalekeni kwayo. Manje sisebenza njengethuluzi eliyinhloko lomthetho womthetho wokuzivikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye futhi siqinisekisa ukwelashwa okulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho. Ochwepheshe bezomthetho, abafundisi, nezakhamuzi ezibophele izakhamuzi, ukuqonda iSichibiyelo se 145 seMithelitha kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela isimiso sezimiso zomthetho esisingatha ngayo inqubo yokucwasana, inqubo efanelekile, nobuzwe. Lesi sihloko sinikeza indlela ebanzi yokuhamba ngomlando, izigaba, izingcabo, izincazelo zaso zomthetho, neziciso zezekelo zanamuhla.

Umlando: Ukusuka Endaweni Kuya Ewumthetho - sisekelo

Iminyaka emine yeMpi Yombango (1861-1865) yaphela ubugqila bezentengiselwano, kodwa isikhundla esingokomthetho samaMelika aseAfrika asanda kukhululwa acishe abe yizigidi ezine sahlala singaqiniseki ngokuyingozi. Umongameli uAbraham Lincoln u-Emancipration Proclation ka-1863 wayeyisilinganiso sempi yempi, futhi iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu (sagunyazwe ngokomthetho ngoDecember 1865) saqeda ubugqila. Nokho, ngokushesha amazwe aseNingizimu amisa “Imithetho eqinile” [eyimithetho] eklanyelwe ukuvimbela inkululeko yabaNsundu, abaphika ilungelo lokuvota, impahla, noma ukunikeza ubufakazi enkantolo, futhi abalahla ngokuphumelelayo ekubeni babe nesigaba sesibili.

Iphendula ngokuthi, iRiphabliki eliphethe i-Republican Congress yanikeza i-Civil Rights Act ka-1866, eyathi bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States bayizakhamuzi futhi banelungelo lokuvikelwa ngokufanayo kwemithetho. Kodwa uMongameli uAndrew Johnson wafaka umthetho, futhi nakuba iSishaya-mthetho sithathe i-veto, izishayamthetho eziningi zazikhathazekile ngokuthi lesi senzo kamuva singabuyiselwa noma sishiwo ukuthi asisayikubekwa esi sivumelwano. Ukubeka lezi zimiso esisekelweni somthetho esingenakuphikwa, iziKhomisha zamisa iSiphendulo somthetho esiyinhloko sahlanganisa izenzakalo eziyinhloko ezisemqondweni we-1455. Izenzakalo ezingoko eziwubumba lo mlando ezihlanganisa i-Ampempement:

  • Ukuphela kweMpi yombango (1865) - - kwakha isidingo esiphuthumayo sokuchaza isimo esingokomthetho sabantu abayizigidi ezine abasanda kukhululwa.
  • Umthetho wamalungelo omphakathi ka 1866 – wabonisa ukumiswa kwemithetho ngokulingana kodwa ungenawo umthetho-sisekelo ohlala njalo.
  • Ukwanda kobudlova babelungu abamhlophe abafuna ukulwa , ikakhulukazi iKu Klux Klan, eyahlupha imiphakathi yabaNsundu futhi yalulaza inkululeko.
  • Phezulu ye-[FLT] - i-South yayingaphansi kombuso kahulumeni, inikeza umongo wezombangazwe ukuze ikwazi ukuhlanganisa.
  • Ukwesaba ukuthi amazwe aseNingizimu angabuyisela amalungelo omphakathi ngokushesha lapho evunyelwa e-Union.

I-amement yadlulisa iSishaya - mthetho ngoJune 1866 futhi yagunyazwa yizifundazwe ezintathu ezine ezidingekayo ngoJuly 1868. Abakhi baso babehlose ukuba sibe isiqinisekiso esiqinisekile sokuvikela amalungelo ombuso ngamanye eqenjini.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko ESichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Ukulungiswa kwalendawo kuhlanganisa izingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa ingxenye yokuqala iqukethe izigaba ezintathu ezibaluleke kakhulu: iSikhundla somphakathi, i-Claus Expresse, ne-Act Procemental Protection Clause. Ezinye izingxenye zihlanganisa ukwahlulwa, ukuncishiswa kwezikhulu ezazingamele ukuhlalisana kwemithetho, isikweletu somphakathi, namandla okuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kwemithetho.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Ingxenye 1 iqala ngamazwi acacile aguqulayo nakamuva: “Bonke abantu abazalwa noma abadalwe e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya labo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States naseHulumeni lapho behlala khona.” Leligama lasichitha ngokuqondile isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme esinedumela elibi Scott v. Sandford [FLT] [1] [1857], lapho uMahluleli Omkhulu uRoger Taney, noma izakhamuzi zase-Afrika, noma izigqila noma ikhululekile, zazingeke zibe izakhamuzi zase-U. Ngokumisa ubuzibulo, isigqebhedu esinikeza incazelo ezenzekelayo nefanayo yesizwe. Kusukela kulokhu bekuyimpikiswano ephakathi yokufuduka, ikakhulukazi isimo sezingane ezizalwa zingazalwangazalwangakhonziwa abazali, futhi zihlala zisebuswa umthetho wesizwe saseMelika.

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

I-Gue Procession Claus yenqabela noma yisiphi isimo kusukela ku- “noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Ekuqaleni iqondwa njengesiqinisekiso sezinqubo ezilungile [1] inobulungisa, ukuqulwa kwecala okungakhethi-----"ihunyushwe iNkantolo Ephakeme] futhi ivikele amalungelo angaphansi angadwetshwanga ngokuqondile eMthethweni. Ngemfundiso ye- “incorporation,” iNkanto esetshenziswa kakhulu i-Bill of Rights ezimisweni ze-Croole, kuhlanganise nenkululeko yokukhuluma, i-kwesokudla sokuphatha izikhali, nokuphenya nokuqulwa okungacabangeli okungacabangeli. Impikiswano iye yaba isisekelo samalungelo eyaziwa [ku-FL:[5] [12] [5]

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

Mhlawumbe ilungiselelo elidume kakhulu, i-Unime Protection Claus iyayala ukuthi akukho mbuso “ozokwehlela kunoma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lawo isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Ayinqabeli ukuhlukanisa ``izindawo' okungahlanganisa abantu ngezizathu ezifanele", kodwa idinga ukuba noma yikuphi ukuhlelwa okuhlangene okuhlangene ngokunengqondo nenhloso kahulumeni evunyelwe. Uma ukuhlelwa kuhilela“ izinga lokungaqondisi” lohlanga noma imvelaphi yesizwe, noma ithinta “ilungelo eliyi-fluearth,” izinkantolo zisebenzise ukucubunga okuqinile, zifune ukuba umthetho usebenzele isithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelayo. Lokhu kwakuyisikhali esingokomthetho esikhushuliwe [[FLT: 0] esingekho imvume yomthetho, futhi inzuzo engokohlobo olungokomthetho, ukusekela inzuzo yeze, ukusekela kwezentengokwa kweze yeze, ukuzuza inzuzo yeze yezele, futhi inzuzo yeze inzuzo yomthetho.[FL:[FFF1] [f2] [2] [2] [frow] [2] [2

Uphawu Lwecala Lenkantolo Ephakeme Lusichitha

Ulimi olufingqiwe lweSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane luye lwanikezwa incazelo eqinisekile ngochungechunge lwezinqumo eziyinhloko zeNkantolo Ephakeme.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (11954) – Ukuqeda i-Seconomist

Isinqumo sobunye Brown sathi ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula i-Exct Protection Claus. INkantolo yenqaba imfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” evela ku Pnety v. Ferguson [1896] [izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene azilingani ngokwemvelo]. Lesinqumo saba isisekelo esingokomthetho senhlangano yamalungelo abantu futhi saholela ekudedeleni kuzo zonke izakhiwo zomphakathi.

[[UMTL:0] Roe v. Ukuhanjwa [[UMTL] [[UMK,1] (1973)) – Ukwethulwa kwento nenqubo elindelekile

Inkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi i-Century Proce Claus ivikela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukuqeda ukukhulelwa, ukukubeka ngaphakathi kwelungelo elibanzi lokuba wedwa. Lelicala labangela amashumi eminyaka ezimpi zezombangazwe nezingokomthetho, ukufinyelela ekwahluleleni [[FLT:] amaDobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization, okwabhidliza [[FLT:]] [[FLT:]] [FLT]] futhi kwabuyisela umthetho wokukhipha isisu.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Ukulingana komshado

Esinqumweni esingu-5-44, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi iSichibiyelo seshumi nane sidinga izimemezelo zokugunyaza nokuqaphela imishado efanayo yobuhlobo bobulili. Isinqumo sasisekelwe kukho kokubili i-Cal Procesme Claus (ukuvikela ilungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada) kanye ne-Uncility Protection Claus (ukucwasana okusekelwe ekufuneni ubulili). bergefell wamelela ukunqoba okukhulu kwe-LGBTQ+ malungelo.

[[I-FLT:0] I-Citinns United v.FEC (2010) – Umlomo we-Corpote

Nakuba ihlangene kakhulu nobandlululo, i-Citabizens United ibonisa ukusebenza kweSivikelo esilinganayo sika Claus kwabanye abantu abangokomthetho. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi isivikelo senkululeko yokukhuluma sokuqala, esifakwe ngokumelene nezifundazwe ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, sivimbela uhulumeni ekuvimbeleni izindleko ezizimele zezombangazwe zezinhlangano nezinyunyana. Lesinqumo siye saguqula umthetho wezezimali wezezimali.

Ithonya Ezinhlanganweni Zamalungelo Omphakathi

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye saba yisici esingokomthetho cishe kuyo yonke imikhankaso emikhulu yamalungelo ezakhamuzi emlandweni waseMelika. Phakathi nawo-1950 nango-1960, iNaACP’s Legal Defense Fund yasebenzisa i-Unicial Protection Clause ukuhlasela i-Expaline profection, imingcele yokuvota, nokucwaswa kwezindlu. Ushintsho lwagunyaza ukudluliswa kwemithetho kahulumeni kahulumeni, njenge-Civinil Rights Act ka-19649 kanye ne-OFrect of Rights, indawo i-Congress eyamiswa ngaphansi kweSigaba sayo se-565, [ama-5]. Ngo-1970 nangama-1980, i-Rectives provicerders [2] ne-Born-octiverrence, u-odvicell, u-odvice, futhi usekekelela izikhali zezomnotho eziqinile ngaphansi kwezenteko, zohlobo ezilinganayo ezisekelayo.[Fols]

Izinselele Nezinkinga Zangesikhathi Esidlule

Naphezu kwamandla ayo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nane asilona ikhambi. ubandlululo lukhona ngezindlela eziningi, futhi izinkantolo zivame ukuhlukana ngokuthi kufanele kuchazwe kabanzi kangakanani. Ezinye zezindaba ezicindezela kakhulu zanamuhla zihlanganisa:

  • [[NTL:0] Imithetho ye-Voter Id ne-Voting Discrition: abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi imithetho ehlukanisayo ivimbela ukukhwabanisa, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lemithetho ngokungenakulinganiswa ithwele umthwalo omncane, asebekhulile, nabavoti abaphansi, okungaphula isivikelo esilinganayo sika Claus. Izinkantolo ziye zafinyelela imiphumela ephikisanayo kuye ngobufakazi benhloso noma imiphumela yediski.
  • Isenzo esiqinile: INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasekela ngokungaguquguquki ukuthi izinqubo zokuvuma umjaho ongazi lutho ezifundweni eziphakeme zihlotshaniswe kakhulu. Iziqu ze-Fair Adgicts v. Harvard [2023], iNkantolo ilinganisela kakhulu ukusetshenziswa kohlanga ekwamukeni kwemfundo yasekolishi, inquma ukuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo kumelwe zibekwe ngokwesilinganiso sesikhathi futhi zilungiswe kancane. Lesinqumo sivula ingxoxo ngokuthi idinga i-mfanzile ye-mfanzile noma imvume yokuthola impumelelo.
  • Ukungena nokuzala ngokusemthethweni kwe-mon jogation: I-sacity ye-Claus seyeyona indawo ephambili enkambisweni yanamuhla yokufuduka. Abanye abezombangazwe baye baphikisa ngokuthi abantwana abazalwe e-U.S. kubazali abangabhalwanga phansi akumelwe bazitholele ubunikazi, isikhundla esiyodinga ukubuyiselwa komthetho-mgaqo-siseko noma ukuchazwa kabusha kwamazwi athi “isikhundla esisebusweni.” Izazi ezingokomthetho zivuma kakhulu ukuthi ukuchazwa okunjalo kungaphikisana nencazelo yokuqala yegama lokuqala nekhulu leminyaka yesibonelo.
  • Ukungalingani kwezomnotho nempilo: Isivikelo esilinganayo sika-Claus asiqinisekisi imiphumela elinganayo yezomnotho, futhi izinkantolo ngokuvamile ziye zathi ubandlululo lwezomnotho lungabekwa kuphela esisekelweni esinengqondo. Lokhu kushiya ubandlululo oluhlelekayo olufanayo olungokokwahlukanisa kwezezimali zesikole, ukufinyelela kwezempilo, nezingozi zendawo ezungezile ngaphandle kokufinyelela kwe-amendimentment ngaphandle kokuba isigaba esisolekayo (umk, uhlanga) sihilelekile.
  • Ubulungisa obuphetheyo kanye nokuhlanganisa kweMisa: I-Sit Process Claus ichazwa njengefuna ukulingwa okulungile, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukuhluka kwezinhlanga ekuboshweni, ekugwetshweni, nasekuncethezeni kusikisela inkinga eyisisekelo yesivikelo. Ukuphendulwa kuqhubekela phambili ukuthi ukuhlikiselwa kungaqeda yini ukungalingani nobandlululo olusobala esimisweni sobulungisa.

Inqubo Yokuqashelwa: Ukuletha Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu E - United States

Enye yeSichibiyelo se 144 seSichibiyelo esiguqula kakhulu imfundiso ehlanganisayo. Ngaphambi kuka-1868, iBill of Rights yasetshenziswa kuphela kuhulumeni wezwe, njengoba ibekwe ku-. Barron v. Baltimore[ (186]. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqala ukuhlanganisa amalungelo ngamanye phakathi ne-Simendo u-Claus ekupheleni kwekhulu le-19, kodwa imfuno enkulu kakhulu yenzeke phakathi nekhulu lama-20: inkululeko yokukhuluma ([FLT:]] grive v. [[FFFF]]],[FFT], 1925], isivikelo sokuhlola okungenangqondo ([FL:]]]], isilinganiso se-universe.[4], i-evossionsion, i-equances], i-vPt.[9] kunye ne-equancern, i-equances], i-evoluv], izingu, izihlu, i-kubili:[

Isiphetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asiyona into engokomlando. Siyincwadi ephilayo, ephefumulayo eqhubeka ilolonga umphakathi waseMelika nomthetho. Kusukela ekudalweni kwayo emlotheni weMpi Yombango kuya ekusebenzeni kwayo ezimpikiswaneni zanamuhla ezihlukanisa kakhulu, ukuguqulwa kunikeza ulimi olusemthethweni lwezinhloso zethu ezihlangene zokulingana, inkululeko, nobulungisa. Izimemezelo zayo ezintathu eziyisisekelo zokuhlanganisa i-Development, i-Active Procement, ne-Acimetic Provition (ukuvikelwa), kuqinisekisa ukuthi amathuluzi ayinhloko abantu ababekela ngawo inselele ukucwaswa nokufinyelela amandla kahulumeni. Kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda amandla esimiso somthetho esihlangene sokuzivikela sobungako so kokubili, inguquko yeGenethth Regencesting, izinqulution yayo enqulwini, imithetho yezomthetho, nezinhlangano zomphakathi, aqinisekisa ukuthi amacebo ahlala njalo esizwe futhi asungulwe futhi afanele ukumiswa.

Ukuze ufunde, hlola iziqondiso zeNational Constitution Center ezibonisanayo, Oyez iqoqo lezehlakalo zeSichibiyelo seshumi nane [, kanye [[FLT] ne-[FLT]Cornell LII’S umbhalo othathiwe [].