Isingeniso

ISichibiyelo sesihlanu soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singenye yezindlela eziyisisekelo zokuvikela i-jurisprudence yaseMelika. Siqiniswa ngo-1791 njengengxenye yeSigqi Samalungelo, sifaka umehluko emalungelweni amaningana avikela abantu ekuphathweni uhulumeni ngokuphambaniswa kwemithetho. Phakathi kwalezi, isivikelo sokuzivikela ekuzichaseni ngokwakho mhlawumbe siyinto eyaziwa kahle kakhulu futhi enxulunyaniswe njalo. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlolwa okunegunya, ngokulandelana kokubekwa kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu: imisuka yaso engokomlando, imisuka engokomthetho, izincazelo ezingokomthetho, izincazelo ezingokomthetho, nezisebenza ngokuqhubekayo emphakathini wanamuhla. Ukuba ungumfundi, umqeqeshi, noma umqeqeshi, noma ummeli, ukuqonda ngokugcwele lomthetho, ukuhlolwa kwale kwale mthetho.

Kuyini Ukuzilimaza?

Ukuzisola kwenzeka lapho umuntu ephoqelelwa ukuba anikeze ubufakazi, izincwadi, noma obunye ubufakazi obungawachaya ekumangalelweni noma ekujezisweni. Isichibiyeli sesihlanu siwenqabela ngokuqondile uhulumeni ukuba aphoqelele umuntu ukuba abe “ufakazi kuye ngokwakhe.” Lelilungelo aliphelele kuyo yonke imininingwane, kodwa lidala isihlangu esinamandla esivikela abamangalelwa ekuphoqelweni ukuba banikeze ubufakazi obusetshenziselwa ukuwabeka iziboshwa. Isivikelo asisebenzi nje kuphela ekufumbeleni ubufakazi enkantolo kodwa futhi namazwi ashiwo phakathi nokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa, ukuqulwa kwezindaba, ngisho nokunye ukuqulwa kwecala.

Okubalulekile, ilungelo elimelene nokuzisola lingelethu kuphela, lingelemvelo kuphela, hhayi izinhlangano noma ezinye izinhlangano. Lingacelwa yinoma yimuphi umuntu okholelwa ngokunengqondo ukuthi impendulo yakhe ingaholela ekwahluleleni kobugebengu. INkantolo Ephakeme ngokungaguquki iye yakholelwa ukuthi ilungelo lidlulela ngalé kokuvuma okuqondile kunoma yikuphi ukwaziswa “okungafaka ukuhlobana kobufakazi obudingekayo ukuze imangalelwe” umuntu ngamunye.

Umlando Wesichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Umsuka wesivikelo sokuzivikela seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokuzibeka uqobo lwaso ugxile kakhulu emlandweni wezemithetho waseNgilandi. Ngekhulu leshumi nesithupha neleshumi nesikhombisa, izinkantolo zamaNgisi nezinkantolo zesonto zazivame ukusebenzisa isifungo sangaphambili se-ficio ukuphoqelela abantu ukuba bafunge ukuthi baphendule ngeqiniso ngaphambi kokuba bazi izimangalo ezibekwa zona. Lomkhuba, ovamile eGatshani laseStar Chamber ne-High Commission, ungaphoqelela umuntu ukuba avume ubugebengu ayengazi ngisho nokuthi babusolwa.

Ukumelana nezinqubo ezinjalo kwaba ukunxusa kwabameli bamaNgisi namakoloni eMelika. UJohn Lilburne, umholi wamaPuritan, ngokwedume ngokudume ukuthatha isifungo sangaphambili se-ficio kuma 1630, ephikisa ngokuthi akekho umuntu okufanele aphoqelelwe ukuba azimangalele. Icala lakhe lasiza ekumiseni isimiso sokuthi umuntu akumelwe aphoqelelwe ukuba azenze aqale ngokwakhe. Ngesikhathi seNguquko yaseMelika, umthetho ovamile [impetur] i-epulcus acus [ (“umuntu uboshelwe ukuba amacala okuzimangalela.)) wafakwa ngokuqinile emasikweni angokomthetho ezindawo zaseMelika.

Lapho abafaki bebopha iBill of Rights, badweba lelifa ngokuqondile. UJames Madison, owasungula izinguquko eKhongomeni, wafuna ukuvimbela uhulumeni omusha ukuba asebenzise amasu afanayo okuphenya ayethukuthelise amakoloni. IsiHlulo sesihlanu saklanywa njengesivikelo sokuhlukunyezwa, ukuvuma izono ngokuphoqelelwa, nobushiqela bamandla ombuso. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi ilungelo “lisusa izindinganiso zethu eziyisisekelo eziningi nezifiso eziphambili.” [ornell Information Information formation – Istitution fith Refection] [Foplet:1]

Umbhalo Wesichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Umbhalo ophelele weSichibiyelo Sesihlanu ufundeka kanje:

“ Akukho muntu oyobekwa isigwebo senhloko - dolobha, noma ngenye indlela, ngaphandle kokuba kubekwe icala noma icala loMbhishobhi Omkhulu, ngaphandle kwanoma yiziphi izimo ezavela ezweni noma emikhumbi yempi, noma eMilitia, lapho esebenzela ngokoqobo ngesikhathi seMpi noma sengozi yomphakathi; futhi akekho umuntu oyoba ngaphansi kwecala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yokuphila noma isitho; futhi ngeke aphoqelelwe noma kunoma yiliphi icala lobugebengu ukuba abe ufakazi omelene naye, noma aphucwe ukuphila, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho; noma impahla yomuntu angathathwa ngenjongo yokusetshenziswa umphakathi, ngaphandle kokukhokhwa.”

Nakuba lesi sihloko sigxila emazwini okuziphikisa, kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu siqukethe izivikelo ezinhlanu ezihlukile: imfuneko enkulu yabahluleli, ingozi ephindwe kabili, ukuzihlukanisa, inqubo efanele, futhi uthatha. Ngamunye unomthetho wakhe siqu wendaba kanye nokubaluleka okuwusizo.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko ESichibiyelo Sesihlanu: Ukubukeza

I - Grand Jury Clause

Ngaphambi kokuba umuntu aquliswe icala eliyinhloko noma elibi likahulumeni, ijaji elikhulu kumelwe likhiphe icala noma icala. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi kungenzeka kuqhubekeke imbangela. Isikhombo asisebenzi ekumangalelweni kwezwe, kodwa izifundazwe eziningi zinezinqubo ezifanayo.

UClaus Ocebe Kabili

I - “Bible Jeopardy Claus ” ivikela umuntu ukuba angaquliswa icala elifanayo kabili ngemva kokulahlwa noma ukuvunyelwa.

Izinhlelo ezilindelekile

I-System Claus yenqabela uhulumeni ukuba anciphe noma ubani ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwezimiso ezingokomthetho.

Ukuthatha (umkhakha obalulekile) uClaus

Leli lungiselelo laziwa nangokuthi i - Engitings Claus, lifuna ukuba uhulumeni anikeze isinxephezelo nje lapho kudingeka indawo yangasese ukuze isetshenziswe umphakathi.

Ukuzithethelela U Claus

Inkulumo yokuzisholo mhlawumbe iyingxenye ebekwe phambili kakhulu yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Ithi akekho umuntu “ophoqelelwa kunoma iliphi icala lobugebengu ukuba abe ufakazi omelene naye.” Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yandisa lesivikelo ukuze sisetshenziswe ezimweni eziningi ngaphandle kwecala elingokomthetho.

Ukuzikhukhumeza KukaClaus Ngemininingwane

Indawo Yokuvikelwa

Ilungelo lokumelana nokuziphindisela linemingcele. Isebenza kuphela ekufakazeni noma ekuxhumaneni okuphoqelelweyo okusemvelweni. [FLT]Smerber v. California [196], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi ilungelo livikela kuphela ekubopheni “isibonakaliso” ubufakazi, amazwi noma izenzo zophawu. [=16] ubufakazi obungokoqobo obunjengesampula legazi, iminwe, noma umbhalo wesandla. Ngakho, iphoyisa lingadinga ukusolwa ukuba linikeze iDNAB noma ukuthatha isinyathelo ngaphandle kokuphula i-mende ye-15.

Ongakungcolisa

Ilungelo liyilungelo lomuntu siqu. Inhlangano, inyunyana, noma enye inhlangano eqanjwe ngomuntu ayinakucela iSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Nokho, izisebenzi ngazinye zingakwazi ukuqinisa ilungelo lapho ubufakazi bazo buzenza zibe yize, ngisho noma umqashi efuna ukuba zikhulume. Izimfuneko zokugcinwa komlando wamabhizinisi (izifundo eziphicothoziwe”) zingalinqoba ilungelo uma amarekhodi ewuhlobo oluthile lukahulumeni kudingeka ukuba agcinwe.

Lapho Ilungelo Livela

Lesivikelo sisebenza kunoma yimuphi “umphakathi noma ubugebengu, umqondisi noma ukwahlulela, abacwaningi noma ummeli” lapho ufakazi ebizelwa khona ukuba anikeze ubufakazi. Awehlanganisi nje kuphela ukuqulwa kwecala kwangokomthetho kodwa futhi nokuphenywa kwamaphoyisa, ukuqulwa kwecala, ngisho nokuqulwa kwamajaji okukhulu. Isihluthulelo siwukuthi ukusabela kumelwe kuphoqelelwe yigunya likahulumeni futhi kumelwe kwakhe ingozi yangempela yokumangalelwa kwecala.

“ Ukuyala Owesihlanu” Ekwenzeni

Indlela Yokukhipha Icala Esongeni

Ngokuphambene nenkolelo ethandwayo, ukumane uthule akuyifuni ngokuzenzekelayo iSichibiyelo sesihlanu. INkantolo Ephakeme yacaciswa [[FLT] SALINAS v. Texas (2013]) ukuthi ufakazi kumelwe anxuse ilungelo lokuthola isivikelo sayo. Uma umuntu ehlala athulile ngaphandle kokusho ukuthi uthembele eSichibiyelweni sesihlanu, abashushicishi bangase kamuva bakhulume ngalokho kuthula noma basebenzise ubufakazi bokuba necala kwezinye izimo. Ngakho, noma ubani ofisa ukugwema isihlanu kufanele athi, “Ngiqinisekisa ilungelo lami lokuhlala buthule ngaphansi kwe-Gantberberberformation noma ulimi olufanayo.

Imiphumela Yokunxusa

Uma ufakazi enxusa ngokufanelekile owesihlanu, uhulumeni ngokuvamile akanakubaphoqelela ukuba bafakazele, futhi iqiniso lokwenqaba kwabo alinakusetshenziswa ekumangalelweni kobugebengu. Nokho, amajaji ecala lomphakathi angase athole izimpawu ezingezwani ezivela ekuceleni kweqembu ilungelo. Emacaleni obugebengu, abashushisi abanqatshelwe ukukhulumela ukwehluleka kommangalelwa ukunikeza ubufakazi, ngecala [FLT] [FLT]] griffin v. California[FLT] [1965].]. Nokho ilungelo aliqinisekisi ukuvikelwa kombono wasobala ukuthi ummangalelwa ufakazi uyavuma uma enqaba.

Umbukwane Welungelo

Ilungelo leSichibiyelo sesihlanu lingalahlwa. Uma ufakazi efakaza ngokuzithandela ngendaba ethile, angase abhekwe njengowalilahla ilungelo ngokuphathelene nemibuzo ehlobene nayo. Umkhohlisi usebenza kuphela endabeni abafakazele ngayo. Ummangalelwa ozivikelayo akakwazi ukunqaba ukuphendula imibuzo ephendulwe ngemibuzo ephakanyiswayo lapho ephenduzwa ngokuqondile.

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

[[UMTH:0] Miranda v. Arizona[ (1966)

Mhlawumbe icala elizihlukanisayo kakhulu, Miranda v. Arizona yamisa imfuneko yokuba amaphoyisa aqaphele ukuthi anelungelo lawo lokuhlala ethule futhi anelungelo lawo lokuba abe ummeli ngaphambi kokuphenywa. INkantolo yabambelela ekutheni ngaphandle kwalezi zixwayiso, izimemezelo ezitholwa phakathi nokuphenywa komgunyaziso zilinganiselwa ukuthi ziyaphoqelelwa futhi ziyakhokhwa enkantolo. Ilungelo manje elikhona lokusola ukuthi “iMaranda” liye laba yitshe legumbi lenqubo yokugcinwa komthetho. [FLT] [OYEK] [[FL:] [FLT] [FL:] [3] [F]]

Griffin v. California (1965)

Griffin, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sinqabela umshushisi ukuba akhulume ngehluleka kommangalelwa ukunikeza ubufakazi enkantolo. INkantolo yacabanga ukuthi ukukhulumela okunjalo kungamjezisa ngokuphumelelayo ummangalelwa ngokusebenzisa ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokuthula. Lesivikelo sisebenza ngokufanayo ezingxoxweni zikahulumeni ngeSiphendulo seshumi nane.

[[IQUL:0] Kastigar v. United States[ (1972]

Kastigar wakhuluma ngokusetshenziswa kwezipho zokugonyelwa ekuphoqeleleni ubufakazi. INkantolo yaphetha ngokuthi uma uhulumeni enikeza ubufakazi “ukusebenzisa nokwenza" ukuvikela ” ukulondoloza izikhali, kusho ubufakazi ngokwabo kanye nobufakazi obutholakala kuyo obungenakusetshenziswa ngokumelene nofakazi − ufakazi angaphoqelelwa ukuba abufakazele. Uhulumeni ukhona-ke ufakazele ukuthi noma ibuphi ubufakazi obusebenzisayo bungabukho ubufakazi obugonyiwe.

[[UMTH:0] Salinas v. Texas (2013)

Salinas wacacisa ukuthi ukuthula komcabango phakathi nokuphumula, ukubuza kwamaphoyisa okungenalungelo lokunakekela kungasetshenziswa njengobufakazi bokuba necala ngaphandle kokuba osolwayo acele iSichibiyelo Sesihlanu. Icala lihilela ukubulala okuvele aphendule imibuzo ethile kodwa ahlale athule lapho ebuzwa ngebhayisekili. Ngenxa yokuthi akazange athi ilungelo, abashushisi basebenzise ukuthula kwakhe kuye. Inkantolo Ephakeme isekela lokhu, igcizelela imfuneko yokukhipha imvume ecacile. [Oyez] +FLT:] [FLT] [FLT]]

Cavez v. Martinez (2003)

Ku i-Chavez, iNkantolo yacabangela ukuthi umuntu owaphoqelelwa ukuphenywa ngecala kodwa engakaze abekwe icala noma azame ukumangalelwa angamangalelwa ngenxa yokwephulwa kweSichibiyelo sesihlanu. INkantolo yaphetha ukuthi ukuveza ingcaphulo ngokuzibeka komuntu icala kuvikela kuphela ezimpikiswayo ezingeni zobugebengu; isenzo sokuphoqelela ngaphandle kokusebenzisa izinkulumo asiwuphuli uMthetho-sisekelo ngokwaso. Lelicala liqokomisa ukuthi lelilungelo ligxile ekusebenziseni izimemezelo eziphoqelelwe, hhayi ekubopheni kuphela.

Ukulinganiselwa Nokukhishwa Kwezici

Izipho Ezingalawuleki

Njengoba kuphawuliwe ku Kastigar, uhulumeni angaphoqelela ubufakazi uma bunikeza ukuvikeleka. “Ukuzivikela ekuthatheni igwegwe” uvikela ubufakazi ekumangalelweni noma yiziphi izinto ezihlobene nobufakazi, kuyilapho“ ukusebenzisa ukuvikela uhulumeni kuvimbela uhulumeni kuphela ekusebenziseni ubufakazi ngokwabo. Ekwenzeni, ukusebenzisa nokusebenzisa isimiso sokuvikela ezifweni kuvame kakhulu ngokwezinga lombuso.

Ubufakazi Obungokoqobo Nesenzo Sokukhiqiza

IsiHluzi sesihlanu asivikeli ekuphoqelekeni ukuveza ubufakazi obungokomzimba obunjengegazi, i-DNA, umbhalo, noma amasampula ezwi. Nokho, isenzo sokukhiqiza imibhalo singafaka ubufakazi uma ifaka isiqinisekiso ngokuphelele. United States v. Hubbell[[FLT]][2] [2000] [2000], iNkantolo yanquma ukuthi ifuna ummangalelwa ukuba akhiqize iSiphendulo sesihlanu ngenxa yesenzo sokukhetha nokuveza ukwaziswa okungakholeki.

Imfundiso Yemibhalo Egciniwe Edingekayo

Umbiko ogciniwe wokuthi umuntu kumelwe agcine (isib., amasheya entela, amarekhodi athile ebhizinisi), iSichibiyelo sesihlanu asinikezi sivikelo. Uhulumeni angagunyaza ukukhiqizwa kwamarekhodi anjalo ngoba ebhekwa njengomphakathi. Lemfundiso ngokuvamile isetshenziswa ezindaweni ezingokomthetho njengokugcinwa kwendawo ezungezile noma ukuthengiswa kwezibhamu.

Ukuqamba Imali Nemibhalo Yempahla

Izinhlangano azinakuncenga i-Over 5. Izikhulu zemali yenkampani kumelwe ziwaveze ngisho noma zizenzela umgcini-mnumzane. Lomthetho usekelwe esimisweni sokuthi amalungelo enhlangano ahlukene nalawo amanxusa ayo. Nokho, isenzo somkhiqizo ngokwawo singaba ubufakazi kumuntu ngamunye, ngakho kudingeka ukuhlaziywa ngokucophelela.

Ukusetshenziswa Okuwusizo KweSichibiyelo Sesihlanu

Ezilingweni Zobugebengu

Ummangalelwa oyisigebengu angase akhethe ukungafakazeli. Umshushisi akanakuphawula ngalokhu kuthula, futhi abahluleli bayalwa ukuba bangathathi noma yimuphi umuzwa wecala esinqumweni sommangalelwa. Lokhu kuyithuluzi elinamandla ngoba umthwalo wobufakazi uxhomeke ngokuphelele kuhulumeni. Abameli abanolwazi ngokuvamile baluleka amakhasimende ukuba angafakazeli ngaphandle kokuba kudingekile ngokuphelele, njengoba ngisho nobufakazi obuthembekile bungasontwa esiphambanweni.

Ezimweni Zomphakathi

IsiHluzi sesihlanu sikhona futhi empendulweni yomphakathi. Iqembu noma ufakazi angase enqabe ukuphendula imibuzo engawachaya emacaleni obugebengu. Nokho, ngokungafani nasecaleni lobugebengu, ijaji lomphakathi lingathola incazelo ephambene edingweni. Iqembu elinxusa i-Owesihlanu ecaleni lomphakathi lingase lilahlekelwe ngokuphumelelayo ikhono lokuzivikela kuleyondaba, okungaholela ekuhluleleni okungahlulelwa noma kweminye imiphumela emibi.

Ezokuqulwa Kwezindaba Kwama - Congress Nokuqhubeka Kwesimiso Sokuqondisa

OFakazi phambi kweSishaya-mthetho noma izinhlangano zikahulumeni bangase baqinise iSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Izibonelo eziphezulu-profile zihlanganisa ofakazi eWatergate, i-Iran-Contra, nophenyo lwanamuhla lwe-constation. Ilungelo lisebenza ngokugcwele, kodwa imiphumela yezombangazwe nedumela lokuncenga owesihlanu ingaba mikhulu. Ezimisweni zokuqondisa, abantu bangase benqabe ukunikeza ubufakazi obungasetshenziswa kamuva ecaleni lobugebengu, nakuba inxusa lingase lithole iziphetho ezimbi ezinqumweni zalo siqu.

Ekungeneleni Kwamaphoyisa

I- i-Miranda umthetho usebenza ekuphenyweni kwesigwebo. Uma usolwayo esejele (umzekelo, ekhululekile ukuhamba) futhi ephenywa, amaphoyisa kumelwe anikeze izixwayiso futhi ahloniphe ukunxusa kosolwa kokuthula noma iseluleko. Uma nje osolwayo ecela, ukuphenywa kumelwe kuphele. Noma kunjalo, uma osolwayo eqala ingxoxo, izixwayiso zingabhekwa njengezingaxoshwa.

Izimpikiswano Zemithetho Nokuziphakamisa Kwanamuhla

Ubufakazi Nokubhala Kwazo

Ubuchwepheshe banamuhla buphakamisa imibuzo entsha yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu. Inkantolo ingaphoqelela osolwayo ukuba anikeze iphasiwedi noma i-opentic project? Indaba iwukuthi isenzo sokunikeza igama lokungena “iwubumboni.” INkantolo Ephakeme ayikahluleki ngokunembile, kodwa izinkantolo eziphansi ziyahlukana. Abanye baye bakholelwa ukuthi ukukhipha igama eliyisikhala kufakazela ukuthi liyisiqinisekiso ngoba idlulisela ulwazi ngegama eliyimfihlo futhi ingenza ukwaziswa kuqinisekiswe. Abanye babheka ukuphikiswa njengesenzo esingokoqobo esingavikelwanga yiSiphendulo sesihlanu. Lena kuseyindawo esebenzayo yokukhipha i-paligigency nenkulumo ye-wignol.

Izindlela Zokuvikela Nezokungenela Isizwe

Uma kubhekwa ukuphepha kwesizwe nokuphenya kobuphekula, uhulumeni ngezinye izikhathi uye wakhipha umthetho ozihlukanisayo. I-Missionary Commissions Act kanye nezici ezithile zomthetho zilinganisela ukutholakala kwelungelo lamasosha ezitha. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kususa izindinganiso eziyisisekelo zomthetho-sisekelo.

Ukulinganisela Phakathi Kokuphepha Komphakathi Namalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu ngezinye izikhathi siyaphikisana nesidingo sokuqoqa ukwaziswa ngokushesha. Ngokwesibonelo, “ukuphepha komphakathi” ku Mira, kuqashelwa ku [[FLT]]][[FLT]][3] New York v. Quarles[[[[FLT]] [19984], ivumela izikhulu ukuba zibuze imibuzo edingekile ukuze zizivikele noma zinikeze izixwayiso zomphakathi. INkanto ilinganiselwe lendawo ehilela ingozi eseduze.

Isiphetho

Isivikelo seSichibiyelo sesihlanu sokuzimela esisekelwe ekuzibekeleni isisekelo senkululeko yaseMelika. Kusukela ekulweni kwayo nobushiqela baseNgilandi kuya ekusebenzeni kwayo kwanamuhla ezimisweni ze-atmetics nasebunhlolweni be-collegion, ilungelo livikela isimiso esiyisisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe aqinisekise icala lakhe ngaphandle kokuphoqelela ukumangalelwa ukunikeza ubufakazi becala labo siqu. Ukuqonda ukuchaza ukuthi ubani unelungelo elikhona kubaluleke kangakanani futhi kanjani kudinga ukulisebenzisa isimiso somthetho. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe nomphakathi kungenza kanjalo, ngokufanayo nencazelo kanye nezingalo zalo mthetho obalulekile. (Creverse.Crever) [FLT]