Umqondo wenqubo efanelekile yomthetho uwumnyombo ochazayo wesimiso somthetho-mthethweni waseMelika. Ngaphezu kwenqubo engokomthetho, umelela isibopho esijulile somphakathi sokulunga, ukuqonda, kanye nesithunzi somuntu omelene namandla amakhulu ezwe. Lolu hambo olusuka esenzeka eqinisekisweni sempi ye-Province eNgilandi ephakathi kwekhulu le-13 ukuya eMangalande enamandla, egcwele ukuhlangabezana nezimfuno zomphakathi ohlala ukhona kuma-21 aqhubekela phambili. Ukuqonda le nkululeko kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela isivikelo esingokomthetho esakhiwe ngayo ngokunemba enzima, futhi ngokuqhubekayo ukuze kuhlanganeliswe izimfuno zomphakathi ohlala ukhona.

Izimbangela Ezijulile Zesithembiso: Ukuyeka Ukulwa Kuya ESivumelwaneni Samalungelo Abantu

Uhlu lozalo lwenqubo efanele luqala ngokudume kakhulu e-Runnymede ngo-1215, lapho izikhulu zamaNgisi ezihlubukayo zaphoqelela khona iNkosi uJohn ukuba ifake uphawu lwayo . AmaMagna Carta. Nakuba ngokuyinhloko isivumelwano sokuthula esikhuluma ngezikhalo ezithile ezicatshangelwe, izimemezelo zayo ezihlala njalo zazinezimbewu zikahulumeni womthetho-mthetho-sisekelo. Yathi akukho muntu okhululekile ongabanjwa, aboshwe, noma aphucwe "ngaphandle kokwahlulelwa okungokomthetho kwabalingana naye noma ngomthetho wezwe."" Lo , "ngomthetho wezwe," ukhokhokhokho "ka umthetho owenzile ngokomthetho.""."

Emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, lesisimiso sayeka kwaze kwaba sekuqaleni kwekhulu le-17 leminyaka, lapho uSir Edward Coke, isazi somthetho samaNgisi esesabekayo, evuselela uMagna Carta ezimpini zakhe zokulwa negunya lobukhosi. Coke waphikisa ngokuthi "umthetho wezwe" wawusho okuthile okuqondile: wawuqinisekisa ukufinyelela ezinkantolo zomthetho ezivamile futhi unamathela ekumisweni komthetho. Lencazelo yathonya kakhulu abalandeli bamakoloni baseMelika, ababezibona njengabazunzi balamafa lamalungelo amaNgisi asendulo. I-1628 Umthetho we-Oright no-lish Bill of Rights wangowester uyaqhubeka nokuvikelwa kwesenzo sombuso esiwumthetho esiwucabangelayo, kuhlanganise nelungelo lokunxusa nokuvikelwa komthetho okunonya nesijeziso esingavamile.

Emakoloni aseMelika, inqubo efanele yafakwa endwangwini yokubusa kwasekuqaleni. IMassachusetts Body of Liberations (1641) iyincwadi eqinisekisa ukuthi ukuphila komuntu ngamunye, inkululeko, nempahla kwakuthintana kuphela "ngomthetho ocacile wezwe ogunyaza okufanayo." Lokhu kwabonisa isibopho samaPuritan sokubusa ngomthetho, hhayi ngabantu. Intukuthelo phezu komthetho weStamp Act kanye nowesizwano sosizo esikhathini sangaphambi kokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwakuyinqubo eyisisekelo efanelekile yokukhononda. Abaholi bekoloni babebhisa "intela ngaphandle kokumelelwa" nokusetshenziswa kwezinkantolo zomthetho, ezazisebenza ngaphandle kokugqitshwa. ISimemezelo sokuzikhulula ngokwaso siyinqubo yokuhlulwa kwemithetho, ikakhulukazi ukucukuthwa kwezinzuzo zeNkosi ezithiwe yinqubo yeze."i-Jurioption."

Ngemva kokuzimela, abahleli be-Constitution yangomthetho-sisekelo bakholelwa ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe onamagunya alinganiselwe, anezinombolo ezimbalwa ezisongela inkululeko. Lokhu kwabonisa ukuphambuka. Abalwa ne-Anti-Federalist, bafuna iBhilill of Rights njengesimo sokuthola imvume, baphikisa ukuthi izivumelwano ezibhaliwe ziwukuphela kwesisekelo esilondekile senkululeko. UJames Madison wasabela ngokuhlela i-Bill of Rights, ehlanganisa iSibuyele: "Akethenti... uyophucwa ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho." Lo mthetho wasebenzisa kuphela kuhulumeni wombuso, kodwa wamisa isimiso esiyisisekelo sokuthi ibhulosha liyoboshelwa ngendinganiso eyisisekelo yokulunga.

Isichibiyelo Sesihlanu Nezivikelo Zaso

I-Century Procession yeSichibiyelo sesihlanu isebenza ngokushukuma nezinye izivikelo ezikhethekile ezingaphakathi kwe-accomption ukuze yakhe isihlangu esibanzi sabantu ababhekene namandla kahulumeni. Kuyisiqinisekiso sokulunga komthetho, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni uthathe ukuphila komuntu, inkululeko, noma impahla, kumelwe ilandele imithetho emisiwe futhi inikeze ithuba elibalulekile lokuzwakala.

  • Umkhulu uJury Indida: Emacalani kahulumeni angathi sína, iSichibiyelo sesihlanu sidinga ukunikezwa noma ukubekwa icala yijaji elikhulu, siqinisekisa ukuthi kungenzeka kunesizathu sokuqhubeka nokuqulwa kwecala.
  • Isivikelo sokulwa no-Reopardy: Abantu ngabanye abanakubekwa icala elifanayo kabili, ukuvimbela uhulumeni ukuba angasebenzisi imithombo yakhe ephakeme ukuze ahlukumeze noma acindezele ummangalelwa.
  • Isivikelo sokumelana nokwethulwa: Ilungelo elidumile lokuhlala buthule liqinisekisa ukuthi akukho muntu ongaphoqelelwa ukuba abe ufakazi omelene naye. Lesivikelo, esisekelwe emthethweni ovamile, silahla izindlela zokuqulisa amacala futhi sibeka umthwalo wobufakazi ngokuphelele enkantolo.
  • Ukuthatha: "Impahla yangasese izothathwa ukuze isetshenziswe emphakathini, ngaphandle kwenkokhelo." Lesi sigqebhezana silinganisela ngokuqondile amandla kahulumeni ombuso ophakeme, okudinga ukukhokhwa okulungile uma impahla ithathwa ngenxa yemisebenzi yomphakathi.

Lamathuba amahlanu ahlukene ahlanganiswe isiqinisekiso esisheshayo senqubo efanele, edala isimiso esiqinile senkululeko yomuntu siqu. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yawachaza ngokuqhubekayo lamazwi ukuze iqiniseke ukuthi ayaphumelela enkathini yanamuhla.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane: Ukudlulisela Isivikelo E - United States

IBhili leMalungelo lokuqala lavimbela kuphela uhulumeni kahulumeni. Lokhu kwaqinisekiswa yiNkantolo Ephakeme Barron v. Baltimore (133), lapho uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall akholelwa ukuthi iSichibiyelo sesihlanu asisebenzi kuhulumeni noma kohulumeni bendawo. Ukungabi nabulungisa okusabekayo kobugqila kanye neMpi Yombango kwaqeda lolu hlelo olulinganiselwe. I-past-yar Reconstanmentationmentationments, ikakhulukazi i-FFOLT [[FFLT:2] Fitenth Amementment Constection [18:68]), ngokuyisisekelo, yaguqula uhlelo lwemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko yaseMelika.

Ingxenye Enye yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane inemisho emithathu egxekayo: ama-Oult noma ama-inmunion Claus, i-Clause ye-Act Procession, ne-List Protection Clause. I-Ceast Proce Claus lapha ibonakalisa isihlanu kodwa iqondiswe ezifundeni: "kungekho Zwe elizakuncisha noma imuphi umuntu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho"e-"person" esikhundleni sika-"ingukhetho lwamabo, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi izigqila ezintsha nezinye izakhamuzi zikhululiwe ziyo.

Imfundiso Yokungavumelani

Icala lendlu lokuhleba (1873), iNkantolo Ephakeme yanikeza igalelo elibhubhisayo emalungelweni ombuso noma e-Immunitunio Clause, iyifunda ngokuphumelelayo isuka kuMthetho-sisekelo iminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu. Lokhu kwashiya i-Gast Processs Clause njengemoto eyinhloko yokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo ekuthatheni isinyathelo sikahulumeni. Ngaleyondlela yaqala i-aconsid, ngenqubo yecala inqubo ye-'uthoporation[ [1] imfundiso engokomthetho esetshenziswa ngokuqondile yilungiselelo lika-Curted Active of the Courtment of the geography of the remoties.

Umbuzo oyisihluthulelo wawungu-: yiziphi izingxenye zeBill of Rights ezibaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba zingu "isizathu esisekelwe emqondweni wenkululeko emisiwe"? Phalko v.Connecticut (1937]), Justice Cardozo waphikisa ngokuthi lawomalungelo "asekelwe emasikweni nasemikhubeni yabantu bethu njengokungathi abekwe njengesiseko" kufanele afakwe. Lendlela "ukhetho" izuze ngaphandle kombono kaMahluleli we-Hugo Black' ukuthi iSichibiyelo se-145 se-Refecrence ihloselwe ukuhlanganisa wonke u-Bill of Rights combustment (unity" i-osetion"").

Emashumini eminyaka alandela, iNkantolo Ephakeme yahlanganisa cishe wonke amalungiselelo amakhulu eSimemezelo Samalungelo Abantu ngokumelene nezifundazwe. Izenzakalo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Isichibiyeli sokuqala (inkululeko yokukhuluma).
  • [FLT]] Nearb v. Minnesota (1931]): Isichibiyeli sokuqala (inkululeko yezindaba).
  • [FLT] Cantwell v.Connecticut (1940): Isichibiyeli sokuqala (ukusebenzisa inkolo ngokukhululekile).
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): Isibuyeli sokuqala (uhlelo lombhalo).
  • [FLT] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Isichibiyeli sesine (umthetho owedlulele).
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Isichibiyeli sesithupha (ilungelo lokwelulekwa).
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964): Isichibiyeli sesihlanu (ukuvikelwa ekuzivikeleni ekuzibekeleni).
  • Pointer v. Texas (1965): Isibuyelo seSithandathu (ilungelo lokubhekana nofakazi).
  • [FLT][1] Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Isichibiyeli sesithupha (ikwesokudla ekuqulweni kwejaji).
  • Benton v. Maryland (11969): Isibuyelo sesihlanu (ingozi ephindwe kabili).
  • McDonald v. Chicago [2010]): Isichibiyeli sesibili (ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izingalo).

Lokhu kuvukela kwaqinisekisa ukuthi isiqinisekiso se - Bill of Rights saba isivikelo kuleso naleso isakhamuzi, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi sasihlala kusiphi isifundazwe.

Inqubo Eyisisekelo Efanele: Inkululeko Engaphezu Kwendlela

Nakuba inqubo yokuveza inqubo efanele iqinisekisa izindlela ezilungile (izimpawu, izindlebe, umahluleli ongakhethi), inqubo eyiyo edingayo enamandla kakhulu nephikisanayo. Isekela ukuthi ezinye inkululeko eziyisisekelo zisekelwe ngokujulile emlandweni wesizwe namasiko kangangokuthi uhulumeni ngeke angenele kuzo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ziyini izinqubo ezisetshenziswayo, ngaphandle kokuba zinesizathu esiqinile.

Lomqondo waqala ukuchuma ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka phakathi Lochner inkathi. Lochner v. New York (05], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasebenzisa i-Sected Process Clause yeSimende se-145 seSimende sokugawula umthetho obeka ababhaki emahoreni angu-60 emsebenzi sonto. INkantolo yaphikisa ngokuthi imvume yokukhokha iyimfihlo inkululeko eyisisekelo ekhuselwe ngenqubo efanele, nokuthi umbuso wawunganikezanganikezanga sizathu esanele sokuphazamisa. Lemfundiso yagxekwa kakhulu ngokushaya umthetho wezezimo zezomnotho ezisezingeni lika-1930 futhi ekugcineni yashiya imuva ekuvukeni kwezimiso zezomnotho zanamuhla.

Nokho, iNkantolo ayizange iyilahle ngokuphelele inqubo edingayo. Kunalokho, yabuyisela imfundiso ehlwini lomuntu siqu, oluyisisekelo. Pierce v. Society of Others (1925) kanye [FLT]] Meyer v. Nebraska [1923]], iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo eliyisisekelo labazali lokuqondisa ukukhuliswa nemfundo yabantwana babo. Lomugqa wokucabanga wafinyelela isiphetho sayo endaweni yomuntu siqu.

Griswold v.Connecticut (65]), iNkantolo yaqeda ukuvinjelwa kwemithetho yokuvimbela inzalo, yathola ukuthi ubuhlobo bomshado behlela phakathi kwe "indawo yemfihlo" evikelwe yipenumbras ze-Bill of Rights. Ubulungisa Harlan, ngokuvumelana nombono okhona, buyibeke kulelungelo ngokuqondile ku-Cecle Claus. Lokhu kwaphumela ekunqabeni Roe v. [[[FLT]][3] Imithetho engaphansi] [i-CMT] ivikela, [ikhulu], eqaphela ukuthi owesifazane unelungelo lokukhetha ukukhishwa kwesisu lungelo njengengxenye eyisisekelo sobusobomthethweni. [F] [F] [5]

Isinqumo ku Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022] Roe[ ibonisa ukuthi inqubo efunekayo ayiyona imfundiso ekhona kodwa umkhakha oncishiswe kakhulu wencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo, iphakamisa imibuzo eyisisekelo mayelana nendlela yokuthola amalungelo angangeni.

Ukuvukela KweNkantolo YaseWarren Embukisweni Wezentengiselwano

Ayikho inkathi emlandweni waseMelika eyaguqula incazelo engokoqobo yenqubo efanelekile yokukhuluma engokwesiko yezakhamuzi ezivamile ngaphezu kwenkathi yeJaji eliyinhloko uWarren Warren (1953 - 969). INkantolo iWarren ngokuyisisekelo yathuthukisa ukuphatha kobulungisa bobugebengu, ibeka izindinganiso zomthetho - sisekelo eziqinile kuhulumeni nakumaphoyisa endawo, abashushisi, nezinkantolo.

[[FLT: 0] Mapp v.O. (1961), iNkantolo yenza umthetho wokuhlukanisa usebenze ezifundazweni, iphoqelela amaphoyisa ombuso ukuba avumelane neSichibiyelo sesine. Gedeon v. [[FLT][FLD][63] [1963] [iNkantolo], iNkantolo yasekela ukuthi iSimendo seSiphambathi seSiphambathiso sidinga iziphakamiso ezifuna ukuba kunikezwe abamangalelwa-macala abangemthetho abangenakukwazi ukuwanikeza amalungelo abo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ubugebengu obuboshelwayo bungawa.] [[FLT:] [FLT] Marida.[FLT] [FLD] [5] [6], iNkathi yeNkadensile yemvume engcono kakhulu yokuzibo, (1966]), imfuneko yamaphoyisa okuzitshela abantu ukuba baqhubeke ngokuthula phakathi kwabo ukuba baqhubekela uphenyo futhi bavume. Inkantolo e

Lezi zinqumo zazingadideki. Abagxeki bamangalela iNkantolo ngokuthi "ibopha izigebengu" nethi "ibopha amaphoyisa" kodwa, isimiso esiyinhloko esisekela inqubo yeNkantolo yaseWarren kwakuyinkolelo yokuthi ukufaneleka kwesimiso somthetho womthetho wezephula-mthetho kuxhomeke ekulinganiseni kwayo okuyisisekelo nokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kumelwe ube yincwadi ephilayo evikela abasengozini emandleni esabekayo ezwe.

Inqubo Eyayifaneleke Ekhulwini Lama - 21: Imiyalo Emisha, Izingxabano Ezindala

Njengoba ubuchwepheshe buqhubeka, izimiso eziyisisekelo zenqubo efanele zihlolwa ngezindlela ezingakaze zibonwe ngaphambili.

.Riley v. California (2014, iNkantolo Ephakeme ehlangene yaqaphela ukuthi ocingo oluphathwayo aluzona izinto ezingokoqobo nje kodwa ukugcinwa kokwaziswa okukhulu kwezimiso zobuchwepheshe. INkantolo yathi amaphoyisa adinga isiqinisekiso sokuhlola isenzakalo socingo lwamakhalekhukhwini ukuze aboshwe. IJaji elikhulu uRoberts labhala ukuthi ukwaziswa okusekhaleni "angeke kusetshenziswe njengesikhali sokulimaza isikhulu esibophayo noma ukukhipha isiphumo" nokuthi "izinto ezidinga ukuthunga" zibalulekile" ukunikezwa amandla okugcina izingcingo zanamuhla.

ICarpleter v. United States (208]) yahamba ngisho nangaphezulu, ikholelwa ukuthi ukuzuza kukahulumeni amasonto enzuzo yemininingwane engokomlando yengqamuzana elinomlando elisuka kumphathi wentambo kuhlanganisa ukuseshwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sesine. INkanto yaqaphela ukuthi abantu ngabanye balindele ukuba izinto zomuntu siqu zifinyelelwe kuyo yonke imikhankaso yabo engokomzimba, belahla impikiswano kahulumeni yokuthi imininingwane yeqembu lesithathu (inkampani yocingo) kunokuba kube yiyo engumuntu ngamunye.

Ngaphandle kwenqubo yobugebengu, inqubo efanele incintiswana kakhulu kwezinye izinkundla. Inqubo elindelekile ekholijini iye yaba inqubo eshayelelayo, enezinkantolo ezilwa nenqubo engakanani eyenzekayo ngenxa yabafundi ababhekene nezinsolo zokuhlasela ngokobulili ngaphansi kwesihloko IX, ukulinganisela izithakazelo zabakhonondi nabapheli. INkantolo Ephakeme [[FLT:]] i-Hamdi v. Rumsfeld [2014]] [200]) ikholelwa ukuthi ngisho no-U.S. izakhamuzi zivalelwe njenge "Impi" ezinqubeni ezifanele izinhlelo eziyisisekelo, kuhlanganise nethuba elibalulekile lokuncintisana isisekelo sokuvalelwa kwazo. [FLT] [FFOUM] [5] [exted F] [5]

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasungula futhi uhlelo oluyinkimbinkimbi lokuhlola inqubo efanelekile engokomthetho ingaphandle komongo wobugebengu. [[FLT]] Mathews v. Elvelidge [197], iNkantolo isungula isilinganiso sesithathu sokulinganisela ukuze kuhlolwe ukuthi iyiphi inqubo engokomthetho efanelekile:

    [[FLT]] isithakazelo esiyimfihlo esizothinteka ngesenzo esingokomthetho. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT] [4] Ingozi yokuncishwa isithakazelo esiyiphutha ngezindlela ezinjalo ezisetshenziswayo, kanye nenani elifaneleyo lokusetshenziswa noma inani elingcono lokusekela inzuzo. [kusukela kulokhu kunikezwa inzuzo yomphakathi] [FT] [FLT] [5] [ense] [inxa yomphakathi]

    Isiphetho: Isithembiso Esihlala Njalo Sobulungisa Obuyisisekelo

    Ukuziphendukela kwamalungelo enqubo efanele akuwona nje umlando ongokomthetho; kuyindaba yokulwa kweMelika ukuhlanganisa izinhloso zayo eziphakeme kakhulu neqiniso layo elingaphelele. Kusukela emasimini othuli ase-Runnymede kuya kubaphathi bemitayela abathulile baseSilicon Valley, ukufuna ukulunga okuyisisekelo kuyaqhubeka. Umqondo wenqubo efanele uye wabonakala ungenye yamathuluzi avumelana kakhulu namandla enqolobaneni yemithetho, akwazi ukuzivumelanisa nezinsongo ezintsha zenkululeko kuyilapho uhlala ugxilile esimisweni sasendulo sokuthi uhulumeni kumelwe ulandele umthetho futhi uphathe wonke umuntu ngesithunzi.

    Njengoba kuvela izinselele ezintsha .Njengoba ukuphakama kokuhlakanipha kokuzenzela nobulungisa bemithetho kuqhubekela ezimpikiswaneni eziqhubekayo zenhlala-khona, ukufuduka, nokungalingani kwezomnotho, − isimiso esiyisisekelo sihlala sifana. Uhulumeni olungile kumelwe enze ngendlela elungile, alandele imithetho yawo, futhi ahloniphe isithunzi sawo wonke umuntu. Isisekelo somlando waseMelika siyaqhubeka sithobe ekwahluleleni kobulungisa ikakhulukazi ngenxa yomqondo wenqubo efanele, ovumelana nezimo, ohlala njalo, nowabantu abaningi kakhulu, unikeza ikhampasi yayo yokuziphatha. Ukulondoloza intshiseko, isakhampasi esinolwazi, isivikelo esiqonda futhi esifuna lezi sivikelo siwukuphela kwalelifa eliphawulekayo lomthetho.