UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. umisa isimiso sikahulumeni esidala ukungezwani ngokwemvelo phakathi kobukhosi bezwe kanye nokuphakama komthetho kahulumeni. ISichibiyelo seshumi nenye seSichibiyelo sathiwe siphethe ngokuphangalele ekumangalelweni kwamacala abantu ngabanye, kodwa lesisihlangu singavimbela ukugcinwa kwamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. isigaba semfundiso [intsha], esusiwe kuSeka kuSeka Senkantolo Ephakeme sango 1908, isebenza njengesehlukani enzima ekuvimbeleni ubukhosi. Ivumela abantu ngabanye ukuba bathembele ekufuneni izikhulu zikahulumeni ngenxa yenkululeko elindelekile yokungaphulwa komthetho kahulumeni. Esikhathini esingaphezu kwekhulu kamuva, lemfundiso ihlala iyisimiso esiyisisekelo somthetho womthetho ongokomthetho kanye nesimiso esiyinhloko sokuphatha izikhulu zezenzwe.

Isithiyo Somthetho - sisekelo: ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nanye Nokuhlangana KoMbusi

Ukuqonda i- Imfundiso ye-Exte Young idinga ukwazisa ngenhlabathi engokomthetho eyatshalwa kuyo. Isichibiyeli seshumi nanye sagunyazwa ngo-1795 ukuba sigumbuqele Chajolm v. Georgia[ (1793), indaba lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme eyayiphethe ukuthi izifundazwe zingaqulwa khona enkantolo yombuso yizakhamuzi ezizimele. ISiphakamiso sombhalo sigwenywa izakhamuzi zesinye isizwe noma izwe: "Igunya lezehlulelo le-United States ngeke liqondwe kunoma yiliphi icala lomthetho noma ukuthatha noma ukumiswa, noma ukumiswa omunye wesizwe sase-United States.

Kamuva iNkantolo Ephakeme yandisa lesivikelo ngokuphawulekayo ku- h. Lencazelo yayisho ukuthi umbuso awungenziwa ngokuqondile, ngisho nokuphula umthetho, ngaphandle kokuba umbuso uvume noma usekeli iSigamu sesithako esingaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine. Lokhu kuvikela okukhulu kwadala igebe eliqinile lezakhamuzi zawo ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni. Uma umbuso wezwe uphula amalungelo omthetho, isimo ngokwaso ngeke sibizwe ngokuqondiswe ngokuqondile, ngisho nangokuthi ulwephula umthetho, ngaphandle kokuba isifunda sesizwe sivume ukuthi iSigaxa esivikelekile sibekwe ngokomthetho noma iSishayamthetho sifakwe igebethi esisemthethweni esingekho imvume engokomthetho ephumayo.

Leligebe laliyinkinga ikakhulukazi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinethoba nasekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili, lapho izifunda zilawula amazinga esitimela, amanani ezinto ezisebenzayo, kanye neminye imisebenzi yezezomnotho. Abantu ngabanye nezinkampani babevame ukusho ukuthi lemithetho kahulumeni yayiphula i-Aust Proced noma i-Commerce Clauss. Nokho iSichibiyelo seshumi Nenye nencazelo yabonakala ibavimbela ekufuneni usizo enkantolo kahulumeni ngokumelene nombuso ngokwawo.

UGenesise wemfundiso: [[Umthetho:0] Ex +[[Umthetho:1] (1908)

Kulokhu kwephulwa okungokomthetho kwafaka icala Ex yeye Young, 209 U.S. 123 (08). Impikiswano yavela kumthetho weMinnesota owamisa amazinga esitimela aphakeme kakhulu futhi wabeka izijeziso ezinzima, kuhlanganise nenkokhelo yemali kanye nokuboshwa, ezitimeleni zesitimela ezihlulekayo ukuhambisana. Izitimela zabekela inselele ukuvalwa komthetho, zaveza ukuthi amazinga ayeyinga okunga angasombululi futhi aphula iSiphendulo seshumi nane.

Umbuzo obucayi wawuthi isitimela singayiletha kuphi futhi kubani inselele yaso. Izwe laseMinnesota lagonywa ngokufanayo ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nanye. Nokho, izitimela zafaka isinyathelo enkantolo kahulumeni ngokumelene nommeli omkhulu kahulumeni, u-Edward T. Young, efuna umyalo wokumvimbela ukuba avimbele umthetho ngenkolelo yokuthi umthetho ongekho emthethweni uyize uyize nokuthi isikhulu sezwe esizama ukuphoqelela umthetho ongenanto sisebenza ngaphandle kwegunya elingokomthetho.

INkantolo Ephakeme yamukela lokhu kucabanga embonweni kaMahluleli uRufus Peckham. INkantolo yathi isuti elimelene nesikhulu sikahulumeni ukuba sivume ukumiswa komthetho ongekho emthethweni awusona isambatho esimelene nombuso ngezinjongo zeSiphendulo seshumi nanye. IJaji uPeckham laziwayo ukuthi umthetho ongavumelani nomthetho we-qualisto u-"ize" nokuthi isikhulu sombuso esisebenza ngaphansi komthetho onjalo singu-"ukwephula umthetho wesikhulu sakhe noma ummeleli" futhi ngenxa yalokho singaphansi komthetho ofanele umuntu ngamunye."Le "Nqambano" i-Peckham" ivumela ukuba iNkanto ewuvumela ukuba inkantolo ivumelane ukuvikelwa kwezwe nobukhulu bomthetho.

Kusukela ekuqaleni kwayo, lemfundiso iye yagxekwa njengelulaza ngokunengqondo. Njengoba uMahluleli John Marshall Harlan aphawula ngokuphikisana, isikhulu sombuso sisasebenza ngaphansi kombala womthetho kahulumeni, futhi siyala isikhulu ukuba sivimbele ngokuqondile umbuso ukuba ubeke umthetho waso siqu. Noma kunjalo, ukusinda kwemfundiso kubonisa isidingo esiwusizo: ngaphandle kwayo, ukuphulwa komthetho ngokomthetho okuningi kwezikhulu zikahulumeni bekungahlala kunganqandelwa, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingentula amandla okuphoqelela uMthetho-sisekelo ngokumelene nesenzo sombuso.

Ukubambelela Kokhova

Isimiso esiyinhloko esimiswe ku Ex edice Young sicacile: ISichibiyelo seshumi nanye asibaleki kubaphathi bombuso lapho ukukhululeka kufunwa kuyisiyalo sokumelene nokwephulwa komthetho kahulumeni okuqhubekayo noma okuzayo. Lokhu kubambeke kuye kwaqiniswa futhi kwacaciswa izikhathi ezingenakubalwa phakathi nekhulu leminyaka elidlule, kuqinisa indawo yayo njengesici esibalulekile somthetho-mthethwe-mthethwe-mthetho waseMelika.

Indlela Lemfundiso Esebenza Ngayo

Imfundiso Exte Young isebenza ngaphansi kwemithetho ethile enqumayo ukuthi ukumangalelwa kwesikhulu sikahulumeni kuvunyelwe nini. Ukuqonda la makhenika kuyabagxeka abaqondisi nabahluleli ngokufanayo.

Umehluko Ongase Ube Khona

Umngcele obaluleke kakhulu kulemfundiso wavela elderman v. Jordan, 415 U.S. 651 (1974). Edelman[, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi [[FLT:]] engaphandle kwengxenye [[FLT:] [[FLT]] engaphezulu] ivumela [[FLT] kuphela ukumiswa kosizo [ukuvikelwa]. Usongo olungathi lungakhokhiswa emphonweni kumelwe lukhokhelwe ngesimo semali. Lolu mehluko ukulondoloza ukubusa kwezehlolo ngokwezimali ngesikhathi sokuvimbela kwemithetho yezentengo yezehlo.[FLT]

Ngokwesibonelo, uma isikhulu sikahulumeni siqeda ngokungafanele izinzuzo zomuntu ze-Medicaid, i-paltiff ingakhosha ukuze ibe nezinzuzo zokubuyiselwa phambili (ukukhululeka kokuhlola). Nokho, i-paltiff ayikwazi ukusebenzisa umehluko wentsha [ ukuthola imali yokubuyisela isikhathi lapho izinzuzo zincishwa khona ngokungafanele (izinxephelo ezithathekayo). Ukuze athole ukukhululeka okusebenzayo, umbhishobhi we-patti uyakudinga ukuqinisekisa ukuthi umbuso uphilile ulwe ulwele noma ukuthi umhlangano uphethe i-Brobo.

Imfuneko Eqhubekayo Yokwephula

Lemfundiso idinga ukwephulwa okuqhubekayo [ komthetho kahulumeni. Isudi elifuna ukulungisa isenzo sesikhathi esidlule, esiqediwe aliwele ngaphakathi kwe expace Young ukukhishwa. Lemfuneko ivumelana nohlobo lwekhambi elilinganayo olufunwayo olufunayo, oluklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukulimala kwesikhathi esizayo, hhayi ukujezisa izenzo zangaphambili.

Ngakho, i-partiff ibekela umthetho wezwe inselele kakade osusususiwe noma inkambiso eseyisusiwe kakade ayinakuthembela [ku- Ex ngxenyee Young ukuletha icala. I-Placttiff kumele ibonise ukuthi isikhulu sombuso sithatha isinyathelo okwamanje (noma sesizothatha isinyathelo) ngokwephula umthetho kahulumeni.

Umvikeli Ofanele

Icala kumelwe libekwe isikhulu sikahulumeni esihlangene nokugcinwa komthetho obekelwe inselele. Isikhulu akumelwe sibe isikhulu sikahulumeni esithatha isikhundla esiphakeme kakhulu, kodwa kumelwe sibe negunya lokuphoqelela umthetho ukuba ubekwe. Isuti elimelene nesikhulu esingenagunya lokuqinisekisa lizolahlwa njengegama elingafanele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, isiqu kumelwe siqambe isikhulu esisesikhundleni saso sombuso, hhayi isifundazwe ngokwaso.

Ukulinganiselwa Nezinto Ezihlukile Emfundisweni

Nakuba Ex ngxenye yeYoung inikeza ukuhlukana okukhulu ekuvikeleni uhulumeni wezinga lokuzivikela, ubukhulu bayo abulinganiselwe. Ukulinganiselwa okuningana okubalulekile kucindezela ukusebenza kwayo.

SEMINOLE Friest v. Florida: I-Piformed Remedial Scheme enqamukile

USELE REFYNT BONT of Florida v. , 517 U.S.1996, iNkantolo Ephakeme yaphikisa ngokuthi lapho uKhongolo lwenze khona icebo lokulungisa ngokuningiliziwe lokumisa ilungelo lezwe, [[FLT:] i-Ex pacee Young imfundiso ephakathi [i-FLT] ayinakusetshenziswa ukuvimbela ukulinganiselwa kwalelocebo. [[FLT:] [FOLT]] UMinole Trebe [, i-Indian Regaliaction Actives yanikeza indlela ethile ekhethekile yemithetho kanye nezizwe ukugena, futhi yaphetha leNkathi yendlela yokuhlela icebo lokuhlunga. [F] ngaphansi kwengxenye eyodwa]

Lokhu kukhipha kuncane. Izinkantolo zivame ukuthatha umthetho kahulumeni ongasusi indawo Ex ngxenyee Young ngaphandle uma uMkhandlu ubonise inhloso ecacile nengakholekiyo yokwenza kanjalo.

[[UMTL:0] Isejwayezi Ukuzigcina

Insizwa encane [ ukufundisa okungaqondakali, okuthathwe ku- insizwa yentsha v. Harris (1971], ilinganisela ngokwengeziwe ukusebenza [ kwesigaba [[FLT:] . Ngaphansi] intsha [, izinkantolo zombuso kumelwe zidededede ekumiseni imicimbi yobugebengu eqhubekayo, ezinye izigingqikelelo zomthetho, nezinye izigingciso zomthetho ezibonisa izithakazelo ezibalulekile. Lemfundiso yezengqondo ibonisa izimiso zobuzwe, ifuna izinkantolo zokuhlonipha izibalo ze-mthetho ze-bukhompume.

Ngoba Ingxenye yemfundiso yethi Young iyikhambi elilinganayo, ingaphansi kwemingcele elinganayo, kuhlanganise nethi insizwa [ imfundiso yokuzifihla. Ngisho noma umkhangisi angasungula ukonakala okuqhubekayo kwesikhulu sombuso, inkantolo kahulumeni ingase yenqabe ukusebenzisa igunya uma izibalo ze-palctff zingazwakala ngokugcwele futhi ngokulinganayo ngemicimbi yezwe eqhubekayo.

Izisulelo Ezimelene Nemithetho KaHulumeni Nezinkantolo ZoMbuso

Imfundiso Exte Young isebenza kuphela ekwahluleleni igatsha izikhulu ezilwayo. Izikhulu ezimelene nezishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni noma izinkantolo zikahulumeni ngokuvamile azivunyelwe ngaphansi kwemfundiso. Isizathu siwukuthi inganekwane engokomthetho yemfundiso ayidluliseli engokomthetho engokomthetho eqenjini lemithetho namagatsha okwahlulela, anezinqubo zazo siqu zokusingatha ukuphulwa komthetho. Ngokusebenza, lokhu kusho ukuthi izinselele zokumisa imithetho noma izinqubo zokwahlulela kumelwe zikhombe izikhulu zezikhulu zezikhulu eziphethe eziphethe ngokufaka isibopho sokusebenza noma ukuphatha leyomithetho noma ukusebenzisa lezo zimiso.

Ithonya Elihlala Njalo KuMbusi OnguHulumeni

Imfundiso Ex ngxenye yeYoung iye yaba nethonya elijulile nelihlala njalo emthethweni wokuzivikela kombuso. Ngaphandle kwayo, iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye singazigoma ngokuphumelelayo izikhulu zikahulumeni kuzo zonke izinselele zomthetho-sisekelo, sishiye abantu bengenalo ikhambi lokwephulwa okuqhubekayo kwamalungelo abo.

Inganekwane Engokomthetho Nabagxeki Bayo

Ukuthembela kwemfundiso enganekwaneni "yomthetho" kuye kwadonsa ukugxekwa kwemibono ehlukene. Izazi ze-textualist nezemfundo yokuqala ziphikisa ngokuthi iSichibiyelo seshumi nanye sisho ngokunembile lokho esikushoyo: izimpawu ezithi azivikelekile ezisusweni enkantolo kahulumeni, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isambatho simelene ngokomthetho nombuso noma kumphathi wezwe wokuziphatha okwenziwayo egunyeni lezegunya. UJustice Antonin Scalia, ikakhulukazi, wagxeka le mfundiso ngokuthi "umphandle" wombhalo weSichithi seAgalelo.

Nokho, lemfundiso iye yabonakala iqinile ngokuphawulekayo. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yayiqinisekisa ngokuphindelela, iqaphela ukuthi izinzuzo zayo ezisebenzayo zidlula ubuthakathaka bayo bokucabanga. Njengoba iNkantolo yaphawula ku- Virginia Office for Protection and Advocacy v. Stewart[, 563], [2017], ingxenye yemfundiso engcono ingu-"efanele ukuvumela izinkantolo ukuba zilwelethelela amalungelo ombuso.""

Izinkantolo Zokunikeza Amandla

Lemfundiso iye yanika izinkantolo zikahulumeni amandla okumisa imithetho yoMthetho-sisekelo ne-ovement ngokumelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni ezindaweni eziningi ezihlukene. Iye yaba yisisekelo sokuthuthukisa amalungelo omphakathi anamuhla, umthetho wendawo, nomthetho-sisekelo ukubeka izinselele zezezomnotho. Ukutholakala kokukhululeka okungalawuleki ngaphansi Ex parate Young [ iye yavumela abantu ngabanye nezinhlangano ukuba bafake abadlali bezwe ukuba bahlulele ukuphulwa komthetho wezwe.

Ukulinganisela Ukwahlukanisa Nokulandisa

Lemfundiso iveza ukulinganisela okubucayi phakathi kobuzwe nokuziphendulela. Ihlonipha ubukhosi bezwe ngokuvimbela isuti ngokuqondile kuhulumeni nangokulinganisela ukukhululeka kumakhambi alindelekile angenangozi. Kodwa iqinisekisa futhi ukuthi izikhulu zikahulumeni azinakusebenzisa ukuvikela ubukhosi njengesivikelo ukuze zihileleke ekuziphatheni okungavumelani nemithetho futhi zingajeziswa. Lokhu kulinganisela kusemqoka ekusebenzeni kwesimiso sikahulumeni.

Izisebenziso zanamuhla zemfundiso [[QT:0]Exte Young

Imfundiso Exte Young ayiyona insalela engokomlando. Iseyithuluzi elibalulekile ekuhlabeni kwamanje ezingxenyeni eziningi zomthetho.

Ukumangalelwa Kwamalungelo Omphakathi (Ukukhululwa Ngo - 1983)

Lemfundiso isetshenziswa kakhulu ekumangalelweni kwamalungelo omphakathi ngaphansi kuka-42 U.S.C. . . Abamangalelwa bavamile ukumangalela izikhulu zikahulumeni zejele − abagcini bamajele, amaphoyisa, neziphathi zezinhlangano [“ukubekela inselele yezimiso noma imikhuba engekho ngokwemithetho engokomthetho. Ngokwesibonelo, iziboshwa zingamangalela izikhulu zejele ngenxa yokuphulwa kweSichibiyelo se-80, njengokunganakekelwa okungafanelekile noma izimo ezingalondekile. Lemfundiso ivumela lezisu ukuba zimelane nezikhulu ezikhundleni zazo zegunya labo abaphethe imvume yokuzinzisambuyiselo ngaphandle kokukhipha i-Freversed Refectiontion ye-11.

Umthetho Wendawo Ezungezile

Amaqembu endawo ezungezile nezakhamuzi ezizimele ngokuvamile asebenzisa lemfundiso ukuze agunyaze imithetho engokomthetho elawula indawo ezungezile nezinhlangano zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, uma isikhungo sendawo ezungezile sehluleka ukuvumelana noMthetho we-Cec Water noma i-Cease Air Act, i-pactiff ingamangalela umqondisi wenhlangano ngaphansi u-Ex i-Young ukuphoqelela ukuvuma. Imfundiso iqinisekisa ukuthi izinhlangano zikahulumeni azibaleki icala lokuphulwa kwezimiso zemvelo ngokumane nje zikhiphe ukuvikelwa kombuso.

Ukunakekelwa Kwempilo Ne - Medicaid

Abanakekela impilo neziguli baye basebenzisa le mfundiso ukubekela inselele imithetho ye-Medicaid ephula umthetho kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, uma uhulumeni unciphisa inzuzo kaMedicaid ngaphandle kokuvumelana nezimfuneko zikahulumeni, abanikezeli bangamangalela umqondisi wezwe we-Medicaid ngaphansi ex patee Young [ ukumisa isilinganiso. Ngokufanayo, izinselele zokumisa imingcele yokukhishwa kwezisu, ngokuvamile ehilela ukumelana namalungu ebhodini lezempilo yezempilo, incike emfundisweni yokumisa isilinganiso esiphezulu.

Umthetho Wokukhetha Nokunikeza Amalungelo

Kumthetho wokhetho, lemfundiso ivumela abavoti namaqembu ombuso ukuba abeke inselele imithetho yokuvota evimbelayo, amabalazwe ahluziwe, noma izimfuneko zokuvota. Amasudi ngokuvamile alethwa kubaphathi bokhetho bakahulumeni, njengonobhala kazwelonke, onomthwalo wemfanelo wokunikeza imithetho ephikiswayo. Lemfundiso inikeza indlela yokuthola usizo olusheshayo ukuze kuvinjelwe ingozi kubantu abavoti phambi kokhetho.

Isiphetho

Imfundiso ye- Ex ee Young iyisisekelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Naphezu kokubekwa enganekwaneni engokomthetho, ifeza umsebenzi obalulekile wokwakha: iqinisekisa ukuthi ukuvikela uhulumeni akusona isithiyo esiphelele sokugcinwa komthetho kahulumeni. Ngokuvumela amasutu enkululeko engaphambili emelene nezikhulu zikahulumeni, lemfundiso ihlanganisa izindinganiso eziphikisanayo zobukhosi nobukhulu bombuso. Igunyazazisa izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zibophelele ukubekwa kwemithetho eqenjini eqhubekayo, ivikele amalungelo omthetho ngamunye nokugcinwa komthetho esimisweni sombuso. Njengoba kusetshenziswa kwezikhulu ezisebenzisa amandla okuphula umthetho, imfundiso ihlala iyithuluzi elibalulekile lokulandisa nobukhosi.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola imibono emalunga [[FLT: 0] Oyez: Ex parapee Young, [[FLT:] Cornell Legin Information Institute ye-Extrate Young [, nesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme se-[FLT:] ku- Edelman v. Jordan[[ [indlela enzima yokulinganisela okunzima ekutholeni ukukhululeka okungalawulekiyo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, icala iHofisi yesivikelo ne-ADCOM].[FLC][9]