Ebyafaayo Ebitaggwaawo mu Kiwandiiko ky’Omukaaga: Okuyigganyizibwa mu Biseera Byonna

Omuntu okusobola okuwangula abamulumiriza si lukalala olw'ekika kya leero; lwa musingi gwa Anglo-America ogwayitibwa nga [[FL:0] olukalala olw'okusinzira ku sipiidi [. Ekiragiro kino kikakasibwa mu 1791, ekiwandiikizo kya Claus kikakasa nti &lquo; mu misango gyonna, omuwayirizi ajja kusanyukira omuwagizi w'ensonga eya ddyo &delpip; okubuusibwa n'abajulizi ku buwandike. ” ebigambo bino ebirabika ng'ebyangu okutegeera bye byaleetawo ebikumi n'ebyasa ebiwera eby'okukaapimiraala, n'okunoonyereza. Okuva mu ku ntandikwa y'enkola y'obukulembeze bw'obujulizi bw'ebyabuzi bw'ebya processsssssss mu kifo eky'envior, ebijulizibwa mu mikutu gy'enkola y'enkola y'ebiragiro mu Amereka akaamerika.

Ensibuko y’Ebikolwa bya Claus: Okuva mu Bakozi b’Eddiini ez’Ekikyamu ne Batandika Okutulugunya Eŋŋaano z’Abantu ne Bannaddiini

Enjigiriza ez'edda eza Bridvict Claus zireetebwa ku ngeri abafuzi ba Amerika gye bayisa obubi ennyo amateeka ga Buddaaya. Mu kyasa ekya 16 ne 17, kkooti z'amateeka mu Bungereza zakkiriza okukozesa hex empansé affidavits[[[FLL:1] n'ebigambo eby'olusaago ku bawayirizo, naye nga tewaaliwo kakisa kudda wa mulala avunaani avunaani avunaanibwa abawaayitiddwa omujulizi. Okuwozesebwa kwa Sir Walter Raleigh mu 1603, gye yasingirwa ennyo ku kweyatulira okwali kwa koolesero okutwalibwa nga tekulabika mu kkooti, era ne kukolebwa nga bannalukalala. Abakolanga ssemateeka mu byafaayo bino, ne Clausscae yakolebwa okuziyiza okubunyisibwa okw'okugamba mu ngeri eyo mu ngeri emanyiddwa ennyo; produrat; &doo;.

Mu kiseera Bill of Rights bwe yawandiisibwa, James Madison yakitegeera nti omuwaabirwa ’ obusobozi bw'okukolagana n'abamuwaayiriza bwatuukiriza ebigendererwa bingi: kyakakasa obujulizi obw'okubuteeka mu buyinza obw'okunoonyereza omusaalaba, ne kiwaliriza abajulizi okuwa obujulizi nga balumbiddwa olw'obukakakasa, era ne kisobozesa abalamuzi okwetegereza obujulizi obw'omukitundu ekimu. Okutegeera okwasooka kwalina ebigendererwa ebya bulijjo okusobola okuwa obujulizi obw'enkala, &lquo; nga kkooti enkulu bwe yagamba oluvannyuma. Ekiwandiiko kino eky'ebyafaayo kivumirira: Claus teyali muntu mulungi naye mukuumi mulungi eri gavumenti eyali enyaze.

Okutegeera okw'Olukiiko olw'edda: Emyaka egy'Okufuga (1791-1965)

Mu bbanga erisukka mu kikumi oluvannyuma lw'okumanyibwa, Agumenti Claus yayisibwako nnyo mu kkooti ey'oku ntikko. Court’ bye baasala mu biseera ebyasooka byakozesebwanga nnyo okukalambira ku maaso, okulaba ekifo eky'oku maaso. ] Matox v. United States[FLT][185] [185] [195]), Kkooti Kkooti ewawa yalina obuyinza obw'okukalambira obwa ddyo obutayinza kuggibwako mangu, naye era ne bukitegeera nti Clauszyula tayinza kukozesebwa mu ngeri ey'okunoonyereza n'omusaze. Kkootikko ekyo kyagamba nti, “ ekitongole ekikulu eky'omusango ekya waggulu kiziyiza oba ekitundu eky'ebitundu by'amateeka ebitongole ebinoonyezebwa mu mu mu mu mu maaso, ekitongole eky'omusango ekya bulijjo. Ekyudiyo kiragibwa nga kiragibwa mu nkola eya bulijjo.

Endowooza nti obutuufu bw’olugambo bwali busobola okubeera obutuufu singa obukakafu busangibwa mu kitabo “ ekintu eky’ennyimirira ey’amaanyi ekyogerwako, ” okugezesa okwandigonjoddwa oluvannyuma ne kugonjoolwa.

Waterof: Copper v Texas (1965) ne Ircorporation

Kkooti enkulu yaleetawo enkyukakyuka ez'amaanyi [FLT] Pointer v. Texas[FLT] (65]). Bwe kityo, kkooti enkulu yagamba nti, okukyusizaamu okw'omukaaga okw'Olukalala kwa Clausquo; okusoosa kwa Claus okuteekako obukwakulizo mu mateeka nga mu ngeri y'obukuumi obwa bulijjo. Kkookko Kkooti yaggumiza nnyo ekitongole kya '[FLL:4] Fiententh[[FLLT]''; '&s Proces Clausquo;'. Enjigiriza eno ekkirizibwa mu kuyisaamu omuwayiti , yali etegeeza nti abawabulibwamu balina obuvunaanyizibwa obutuufu obw'okukulembedde mu nsonga ey'omukiikibwa. Ekko, olukalala lw'obujulizivuzi obwa waggulu, olugamba olumu ku nsonga enkulu ennyonnyola enzivuuk'okugibwa mu mateeka. Ekkk

Essaawa Ezikola ku Bulamu bwa Modern: Okuva mu Ohio okudda mu Washington okutuuka mu Crawford v.

Okusinziira ku kitegereze. Mu myaka mingi egyaddirira, ekiwandikiro eky'okufuga n'okusengeka ebigambo kyateekebwa mu [FLT] OYIO v. Roberts [1980]. Mu kunoonyereza okwakolebwa, obujulizi obwava ku ddoboozi lya Roberts, bwalaga nti obujulizi obwali busobola okutegeerwa bwasibuka mu '&ldquo'; obw'amaanyi obwava ku nviromenti ” oba obwawandikibwa mu 'strupy' obw'obwesigwa. ” kino kyawanjula okukeberezebwa okwesigika kwaleetera abalamuzi okunoonyereza okusobola okuzuula ebintu ebitali bituufu. Abawaabikkirizza emisango bakkirizisaamu ennyuma okuyingiza ennyuma mu bujulizi y'omusasanya ogwo. Kino kyakyusizza ekiwayungibwa olw'okunoonyereza. Kino kyava mu kikyusibwa eky'ennakuuti.

Crawford v. Washington (2004): A Paradigm Shift

Mu [FLT][FLT]ford v. Washington[FLT], kkooti enkulu yazzawo olukalala lw'ebiragiro bya Roberts ne kizzaawo ennyinnyonnyola endala ey'ekitongole ekya Claus. Omusango gwalumizibwa Michael Crawford mu kutulugunya n'okugezaako okutta omutemu. Okuwozesebwa kwe kwa Sylvia, okwaweebwa poliisi mu kiseera eky'okubuuza ebibuuzo. Olw'okubuwandiisaamu e Washington &squo; enkizo ey'obufumbo, Sylvia teyawanjula, naye yayanjula ensonga ye wansi w'ensonga ezireetebwa mu lukalala. Enkiiko enkomera ezaasemberera ebwesige mu ku kkootikko, ne mu bukko. Kkolukusaanya ekyo kyakkirizibwa mu kkooti enkulu mu maaso gamu nga teyazibwamukkiriza ku kuwa bujulirwamu. Era, yalagikkiriza nti projerimu eyajulirwa mu lupya mu lupya. Washington Washington yakkiriza okusa

Mu kuwandiikira abasinga obungi, Justice Scalia yagaana okugezesa Roberts mu kukakasa kwe. Ekiragiro kino kyagamba nti, “ Calde’ ekintu ekikulu kiri bujulizi obw'olusaago, ” era nti obwesige bwe busimbye busiimizibwa ku &lquo; era nti si bwesigwa. &lquamorphous, oba nti ensonga ey'ekika kya Crawford yalina okukakasa oba ng'olukalala olw'ebigambo bya kika kya <hquo; mu butonde. Singa kyeyoleka, engeri yokka ey'okukikkiriza mu kkooti nga tennabaawo mujulirwa, era n'omuyiiri w'akakiiko akaakiribwa mu kusooka, yalina omukisa ogwava mu kusomoka olulala. Ekiragiro kino eky'obuyinza eky'okukkiririzaamu ennyo. Ek'ensonga ey'ekitalo evaako eva mu kkooti (empalasa) eva mu ku ku ku kubaako ebijulirwamu empya, nga tannabalukawo.

Post-Crawford: Defining Testimonial Remoints

Ekyavaamu kya Crawford kyatandikawo kampuni ey'ennyimba mu bifo ebya bulijjo, ng'erina ebizingirwa mu mukolo gwa &lquo; tlinial ” ebigambo. Kkooti bw'eddamu ekibuuzo ekyo yazzaako obujulizi obuwerako:

  • [[NKULA:0] DAVIS v. Washington (2006). Kkooti yayawula wakati w'ebigambo ebyayogerwa poliisi mu kubuuza ebibuuzo (eno, okusingira ddala okutandikawo ebibadde bikolebwa okusobola okukomyawo akakwate n'ebyo ebitatwalibwa ng'ekyuma ekikolebwako mu bwangu obwa bulijjo). Omu ku ba poliisi bwe yayitibwa 911, yategeeza nti Davis yali amukuba buggwereddeko omusango, olw'okuba ekigendererwa ekikulu kyali okumalirira obulango.
  • [[NKULA:0][[FLT]] Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts Kkooti yagamba nti alipoota eza mu laboratoota ziraga nti enkola ya kkookesi ziwandiikiddwa bujulizi. Abakugunjuzi abaawandiika alipoota zino bateekwa bukakafu obulaga nti ziteekwa okusalibwa nga waliwo ebisalibwawo okuggyako ng'omuwayiti bw'abadde afunye omukisa okusangirirako. Kino kyaleetawo okukasawo awyiro ku nsonga ezikwata ku by'obbookoloolozaamu ne ku bwetaavu obutuufu obw'okulawulibwa.
  • [[NKULA:0][. New Mexico [2011] (2011) Kkooti ya mmunyeenye yagaziya Mendez-Diaz, nga yakkiriza nti omukugu mu kunoonyereza ku ngeri gye kikeberaamu omusaayi bwe kiwandiikirwa, ekiragiro tekisobola kudda mu kifo ky'omwekenneenya omulala okukakasa obanga alipoota eyo ddala tewa bujulizi, okuggyako nga omuwaabizza ku nsonga ezikwata ku mwenge gwe yasaasaamu.
  • [[NKULA][FLT]Palliams v.Illinois Kkooti ewatika tewaaliwo ndowooza ey'abasinga obungi ku ky'okuba nti ebigambo bya kakensa mu lipoota y'omu ADNA byali bujulizi. Okunoonyereza okw'enjawulo okw'omu pulintaneti kwakizuula nti alipoota ng'eya Aito, ziyinza okuyitibwa nga ze z'omukugunjuzi omukugunjuzi omukugufu askirirako anoonyereza ku bikwata ku by'amateeka.

Ebiraga Obusosoze n’Enkomerero y’Okusoomoozebwa

Kkooti enkulu ekkiriza nti mu nkola y'enkola eya Claus Claus tewaliiko biruubirirwa. Ne mu nkola y'enkola ya Crawford, ku mulundi guno abantu babaako bye bawandiika ku lusanya olw'okuba teboogera nti biwa bujulizi butuufu.

  • [[Act:0]] Ebirala ebikolebwa nga kikkiririza mu kufa okwasembera tebiyinza kuzuulibwa, ne bwe kiba nga kiwa bujulizi, olw'ebyafaayo byabyo. Abasinga obungi baakiraga lwatu nti ekirango ekiba kisalibwa okufa kya njawulo ku kya bulijjo era kirabika kyawona okuwonawo ku Claus.
  • [[NKULULA] Singa omuwayiri afuna omujulizi atali wa mugaso okuyitira mu kibi //'o'okutiisatiisa, oba okukaka) / Oyo asalirwa omusango afiirwa eddembe lye ery'okusoomooza. [FLT] Geles v. California [2008], kkooti yasalawo nti omuwayiti bw'aba n'avunaana okuwa obujulirwa ku nsonga, ateekwa okuba ng'atuukiriza ekigendererwa eky'okubuwandisizza obujulizi. Ekikyamu kivaamu tekimala.
  • [[NT:0] Obulambe obwa mpuku n'obujulizi bwa gavumenti:[[FULT:1] Obuwandiisi obwa Routine obuterekebwa ku bigendererwa by'amatabi, nga ebipimo by'abasindikiddwa enzigi nga 911, butwalibwa nga tebutwalibwa ng'obujulizi obw'enkomeredde olw'okuba ekigendererwa kyabyo ekikulu tekireetawo bujulizi bulaga nti obumenyi buteekeddwawo. Kyokka, embalibwakulembeddwa zisobola okulaga nti ebibaddewo mu bapoliisi.

Enjawulo enkulu esigalawo kwe kulaba obanga ebigambo ebyo byakolebwa mu ndukusa y'omugezi ayagadde bikolebwe mu lufulube lw'amateeka.'Ek'ebigendererwa ” ettuttle; okukebera, nga bwe kiragibwa mu Davis ne mu mitemwa emirala, bye bikozesebwa mu kunoonyereza okumanyisa obutuufu obw'okuvuganya okw'ekika kya kampani.

Ebizibu Ebibaawo Mu Kiseera Kino: Tekinologiya, Obujulizi Obutategeerekeka, n’Emyaka Katonda gy’Amaze ng’Awandiise

Ekyasa ekya 21 kireeseewo okusoomooza kungi ennyo ku by'enkola eya Claus. Wazzeewo obujulizi okuva ku ssimu ez'omu lulimi olwo oba ku nkola za kompyuta eza GPS ezisangibwa ku buwandike, ku mpandika z'oku simu n'obulabirizi obwa nnamba eziragibwa ku bantu.[1] Bireete ebibuuzo eby'ennaku enkunkumulirwa ebikwata ku kikongojjedwa mu &lquo; ebitegeeza nti, obujulizi bwa kompyuta busobola okukakasibwa mu bujulizi. Ebyo ebya kkooti ezisooka biwandikibwa nga biwandikiddwa nti obubaka obubagirwamu tebwesigamiziddwa ku muntu. Naye, empapula ezikolebwa mu ngeri eyo tezingirwamu.

Obujulizi mu vidiyo ez'ewadde nga zenyisiddwa ne coVID-19

Kkooti VID-19 ezikakasibwa okukola ku tekinologiya okusobola okukola emirimu, nga mwe muli n'okukozesa ennyo obujulizi bwa vidiyo obwa kawumpuli okuyitira mu bupapula obufaananako obw'omukolo. [FLT]]] "Maryland v.[FLT][4][FLT]] [1990] [19] [1990], kkooti enkulu yali yakkiriza dda okukozesa enkola ey'ekitebe kya kompyuta okukimu ng'okukuuma obujulizi bw'abaana obutatuukibwako, kubanga tewali kiyinza kuba kye kimu. Singa ate nga kireeteeyambiddwa mu ngeri y'obulwadde. Ate era, ensonga eyinza okulowoozebwa ku nsonga ez'eby'amaanyi ezibadde zigobeetawo mu ngeri ey'okunoonyereza. Singa ebadde y'emu, ensonga ezibadde zisobola okuzuula ebibalira ddala mu mbeera ey'obulwadde, sobuvuzi obw'ebimu ate nga ebibaliragibwa mu mbukukeberebwa.

Obukakafu Obulaga nti Katonda Asobola Okutonda Abantu nga bw’Akozesa Obwa GGGO

Ekimu ku bifo ebisinga okuyomba kwe kukozesa alipoota DNA, ebivudde mu butwa n'ebirala binoonyereza ku nsonga za sayansi ya pulogulamu[[FL:1] nga tewali amuyita muwulizi ebyasooka. Ekimu ku ebyo ebikyasinze okuleetawo ennyo kwe kuba nti alaga nti munnabyo eyasooka ayogerwako. Ekimu ku byotoogo by'asooka kisalawo nti mu kkooti eyo terina kubaamu kawyiro w'okuyita akajulizi. Okumenya okuleetawo antinti eya 'FLT'.[FF][6][5]

Wadde ng'obadde otegeka Omusaalaba n'Enjawulo, waliwo ekiyinza okugufuula gwa Ggwanga

Kkooti ezimaze okubunyisibwa mu nsi yonna ziwagidde kkooti okumanya oba ng'empandika ewandikiddwa abakungu ba gavumenti oba wansi w'amateeka agatali gamu. [FLT]] United States v. Abu Hazza (2020:0)[FLT]], olukumbo olw'okubiri lwagamba nti ebigambo ebiweebwa abapoliisi abagwira mu nsi endala nga babuuzibwa ebibuuzo tebyewandiikibwako wansi wa Crawford singa ensonga ezo tezikwasibwa maaso ga U.S.

Etteeka lya Claus n’Eddembe ly’Abayigga Zokka

Obuzibu obulala obuliwo mu kiseera kino bwesigamye ku awalala eddembe ly'abo abaakwatibwa obumenyi bw'amateeka wansi w'obufuzi era n'amateeka agafuga etteeka ery'enkwaso. Ekibinja kya Crime Mifix’ Rights Act (CVRA) ekya 2004 ne gavumenti nnyingi ziwa abanyaze obwannamunizo obuyinza okubeera mu kugezesebwa n'okuwulirwa. Singa omwana oba omuntu omukulu atalina bukuumi atwalibwa aba ayisiddwako, kkooti z'alina okupima omuwayiti bw'abayiti bw'abakosezza oba okusoberwako. Ebbeebbeeyi za gavumenti ziresebwa okusobola okwewala ebikolebwakoweeyambisibwa ebiva mu ku nsonga ez'amaanyi. [[FLLT:2] Kino kisigala nga kikolwa eky'obujulizivuzi bw'abajulizi b'abaana, naye nga bigaziyimiriziddwa mu nsonga eziba nga ziteekeddwa okusobozesa okumanyibwa.

Obulagirizi Obukwata ku Biseera eby’Omu Maaso: Empagi Ekwata ku Claus mu Kyasa eky’Awa 21

Tekinologiya yeeyongera okukozesebwa okusinga ennyo enjigiriza ey'omu mateeka. Ekiragiro kino kisalawo okuyisa ekiwandikiro eky'oku sistemu extractive ’ ekiwandikiro ekifuga enkola ya AIC kijja kuyolekagana n'ebigezo ebippya. Obusobozi obw'okukola eby'amagezi obwamalanga okuteekawo lipoota, era n'oteekawo obujulizi obw'omunda. Ekiragiro &lquo; omujulizi &squo; programu ya AIIC'eyinza okuteeka ebigambo ebikozesebwa mu kuwayinjagibwa omuwa? Kkompolaanya zino ziyinza okubaamu obujulizi obw'amaanyi kubanga tebalina bujulizi obulaga nti abantu bannasayansi bakozesa ebintu ebya AUCRACRAC.

Obubonero obuli obwa kamera buleetawo ebibuuzo. Kamera bw'etwala omujulizi mu kifo eky'okulabirako n'engeri gy'ekozesebwamu era n'okusobozesa obuwanvu bwa kamera okulabika. Ekiragiro kamera bw'etwala omujulizi &squo; ebigambo ebiri ku kiwandikiro, obujulizi butegeeza nti obujulizi obwa bulijjo. Mu ngeri y'emu, ekiragiro bwe kiba nga ebigambo ebyo byagobererwa omukungu &squo; ebibuuzo mu kiseera kino, kirabika tebiba byakkirizibwamu mu bujulizi obw'akaddaaka. Naye kamera bwe kampuni ewandukusaamu omujulizi w'abajulizi &cquo; n'enkola y'enkola y'emu ku nsonga ez'enjawulo. Kkootikko kigo agoberera obujulizizo awatali ku nsonga ezisinga okunoonyereza mu n'obujulizibwa obutuufu.

Ku nkomerero, enkola ey'ekika kino ey'okukwata ebiwandiikizo ewagirwa Omulamuzi Scalia mu Crawford yeeyongera okufuga kkooti ’ eyinza obutamanyibwa, naye ebiseera byayo eby'omu maaso bwe bifuuka ensala y'ensonga empya. Abeekenneenya abamu bakkirizisa mu nkola eziyinza okusobozesa kkooti okukkiriza amasingi gazo ne nga tewannabaawo muwanikibwa. Abalala bagamba nti okunnyonnyola okw'obukaanyi, okusobola okukuuma abawayiribwa okuva ku gavumenti. Kkooti n'empala y'ensonga zisobola okunyweza enkolagana wakati w'eby'eby'ebyobufuzi n'ensonga.

Olugero: Obusika obw’Omu Bulamu olw’Okumeggana n’Abalala

Endowooza nti ezzadde ly'omujulirwa kyongera ku kuba nti limanyi bulungi omusingi ogutali gukyukakyuka: Omuwaabi ateekwa okuba n'akakisa ak'okugezesa obutuufu obw'okubeerawo kwa gavumenti ’ obujulizi. Okuva ku ssematabi, mu mpandiika y'enkola ya Bungereza Star Chamber okutuuka ku mu kkooti ya Amerika ey'omu kiseera kino, okuva ku mpandiika ya ssaayansi ya DNA, okuwakanya Polace kikakasa nti okutaasa obuwanguzi bwa Clausce okusobola okufuna eddembe. Teaksikiririza obukyamu, obuwayinjabi bukkirizibwa buleme okubumalawo. Ekkomyanti y'edda ereetera okubaamu ensonga zeetaagisa okubunyigiriza obutuufu okubutegeera obulungi. Eprocesquo; ebyafaayo ebireetebwawo ebibawaasa ebikozesebwa mu byafaayo (5) era n'ensonga enkulu egoberera enkola y'eyo ey'okulaakulabisibwa mu myaka 230.

[[NKULULA] Okusobola okwongera okusoma, laba ebiwandike byonna ebya Claus ku Cornell LII, Courtsquo; endowooza ya Cawford v. Washington [2004] [2004]], ne American Bar Association ’s ku bujulizi n'emiba gy'ebiragiro.[FLT:]