Table of Contents
Maziko a Kulingana kwa Malamulo
Chitsimikizo cha kulingana ndi lamulo la ku America nchimodzi mwa mfundo zokhalitsa ndiponso zotsutsana kwambiri. Ngakhale kuti Chilengezo cha Ufulu wa Anthu chinalengeza kuti anthu onse analengedwa ofanana, chinatenga pafupifupi zaka zana limodzi kuti chikhale ndi cholinga chimenechi kuti chikhale ndi mawu omveka bwino m'Malamulo. Kusintha kwa Malamulo a 1449 mu 1868 kunali chizindikiro cha kusintha kwakukulu, kuyambitsa ufulu wa anthu woyendera ufulu wa dziko lonse, umene umalamula kuti palibe boma lililonse limene lidzakana munthu wokhala ndi ulamuliro wofanana wotetezera malamulo. Chigamuweruzo chimodzi chimenechi chachititsa khoti Lapamwamba kwambiri kuposa chigamulo china chilichonse cha malamulo a boma ndipo chatumikira monga chigamulo chachikulu cha ufulu wa anthu wopita patsogolo m’mibadwo yotsatira.
Nkhani ya mbiri yakale ya Kusintha kwa 144 ndi yofunika kuti timvetsetse kufalikira kwake. Kusintha kwa nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni kunakonzedwa kuti kusungitse ufulu wa Aafirika ongomasulidwa kumene kutsutsana ndi lamulo la boma lankhanza. Chigawo choyamba, chomwe chili ndi ma Centull Claus Claus ndi Secute Devition Experiment Claus, chinali cholinganizidwa kukhazikitsa malamulo a malamulo a malamulo a malamulo a Chilamulo cha ufulu wa Chilamulo cha Chilamulo cha anthu a ku America cha ku America omasulidwa ndi kutsutsa lamulo laudani. Chigawo choyamba cha Suprement Claus chamasulira protection Claus kuti afikire kupyola pa mkhalidwe woyambirira wa tsankho, kugaŵa malamulo ozikidwa pa kugonana, alendo, kusoŵa ufulu wa kugonana, ndi kuyang’anira za kugonana.
Mafotokozedwe a Khoti lolinganiza sanathe. Zosankha zoyambirira za zaka za zana la 19 ndi kumayambiriro kwa makumi aŵiri kaŵirikaŵiri zinachepetsa kutha kwa kusinthako. Chochititsa choipa Chili ndi Chikole cha Malamulo cha 1883] cha anaswa malamulo a boma oletsa tsankho lachinsinsi, kugwirizanitsa Chitetezo cha Unyinji cha Claus kuti anene. Pyv. [1866]) anachirikiza mwadala tsankho la fuko pansi pa chiphunzitso chosiyana koma chofanana, chigamulo chimene chikaima kwa zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi. Kumvetsetsa zimenezi kuli kofunika kwa aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira chifukwa chimasonyeza kuti tanthauzo la bungwe lalamulo lachigwirizano pakati pa zigawa, ndi kumasulira kwalamulo, kuweruza kwalamulo, ndi kuweruza kwa milandu.
Maziko Aakulu: Njira Yopita ku Brown
Ferguson (1896) ndi chiphunzitso Chofanana
Palibe kumvetsetsa kwa kulingana kwa malungo kuli kokwanira popanda kulimbana ndi . Ferguson. Homer Plessy, amene anali woyera , ndi wachisanu ndi chitatu Black, anatsutsa mwadala lamulo la Louisiana mwa kukana kusiya galimoto ya njanji yoyera yokha. Khoti Lalikulu, m'chigamulo cholembedwa ndi Woweruza Henry Bills Brown, anachirikiza lamulo, kuti kupendedwa sikunatanthauza kutsika kwa fuko lililonse la mtundu wonsewo kuyambira pamene malo operekedwawo anali ofanana. Woweruza John Marshall Harlan anatulutsa mzera wotchuka wa kutsutsa umene wotchukawo.
Chiyambukiro chogwira ntchito cha Plassity chinali kukhazikitsa dongosolo lokwanira la kugonjera kwa mafuko ku South. Malo olekanitsa kaamba ka maphunziro, zoyendera, nyumba, ndi malo ogona anthu onse sanafananepo ndi kukongola kapena kuthandizira. Chiphunzitsocho chinapitirizabe kwa zaka pafupifupi makumi asanu ndi limodzi, chochirikizidwa ndi njira yapadera ya khoti ya kugonjera kwa mphamvu ya apolisi ndi kuŵerenga kwake kopapatiza. NaACPCFC Legatence Fund, yotsogozedwa ndi Thurfable Marshall, yothera zaka makumi ambiri ikupanga mbiri ya umboni wakuti malo opatukira, yosonyeza kusalingana ndi kuwonekera mu [FL:] Brown. v Frodeast of Education .
Wolemba mabuku wina, dzina lake Shelley, Kraemer (1948) ndi buku la State Action Doctrine
Brown, Khoti linachita sitepe lofunika kwambiri poletsa tsankho la fuko ku . Khoti linaona kuti pamene mapanganowo anali mapangano aumwini, kusungidwa kwa mapanganowo kunali kokhudzana ndi mfundo zachigamulo za kuteteza Claus. Chigamulochi sichinachotseretu mapangano oletsa ufuko, koma chinawaletsa kugulitsa katundu kwa anthu a ku Africa. Khotilo linaona kuti pamene kuli kwakuti mapanganowo anali mapangano achinsinsi, kukhazikitsa kwachiweruzo kwa mapanganowo kuchitika kwa lamulo lakuteteza Classio. Chigamuchi sichinachotseretu mapangano oletsa mapangano, koma chinawachititsa kusaloledwa, kugulitsa kopatsirana kopindulitsa kopindulitsa.
Milandu ya Khoti Lalikulu Yokhudza Kulingana
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Imfa ya Kusiyana Kofanana
[FLT .Brown v. Board of Education[FLT :2] imaonedwa mofala monga chigamulo chofunika koposa cha Khoti Lalikulu m’zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri. Nkhaniyo inaphatikizapo mavuto asanu opatulidwa kuti akhazikitse sukulu za anthu kuchokera ku Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, ndi Chigawo cha Columbia. Chikhululumbiro Aberl Warren, kulemba khoti laling, anakhulupirira kuti malo a maphunziro oletsedwa anali osalingana ndi Claus. Khotilo linadalira pa umboni wa sayansi ya za kakhalidwe wa anthu wosonyeza kuvulaza kwa maganizo kwa ana a ku Africa.
Chigamulo chinathetsa chiphunzitso chosiyana koma chofanana ndi kuyambitsa mpambo wa zochitika zimene zikasintha chitaganya cha America. Kutsatira kwake kunatsimikizira kukhala kovuta kwambiri kuposa chigamulocho, ndipo khoti linapereka chigamulo chachiŵiri mu Brown II [ [1955]] (kufuna kuchotsa pamodzi ndi liŵiro lonse, mawu amene analola chitsutso chachikulu. Mayiko a kummwera oloŵerera kwambiri, kutseka masukulu ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo oletsa kuweruza. Ilo linatenganso lamulo lachigamu la ufulu wa chivomezi wa 1964 kuyambitsa kugwirizana kwatanthauzo. ] mawu: mlandu umenewu udakali maziko a miyala ya chitetezo chamakono ndi ufulu wa chivomezi.
Korematsu m’mbali mwa United States (1944): A Piery Tale
Khoti lililonse lonena za kufanana liyeneranso kuvomereza kulephera kwa Khoti. [FLT]Korematsu v. United States , Bwalo lachirikiza kukakamiza kwa Aamereka a ku Japan pa Nkhondo ya Dziko II, kugwiritsira ntchito muyezo wofufuzidwa kwambiri umene boma lingakhale litakhutira. Chigamulocho chimakhalabe chenjezo la ufulu wa malamulo panthaŵi ya mavuto a dziko lonse ndipo chatsutsidwa kwambiri. Chinakanidwa mokhutiritsa mu [[FLT:] Trump. Hawaii [1] v [FLT:] . [1] [1] [1] [1] [1]
Kukondana ndi Virginia (1967): Kuyenera kwa Kukwatira Popanda Ziletso za Utundu
Mu [FLT . Virginia [FLT :2] , Khoti Lalikulu linagwirizana kuswa lamulo la Virginia la Upitideko wa fuko, limene linaletsa ukwati wa mafuko osiyanasiyana. Richard ndi Mildred Long, mwamuna woyera ndi mkazi wakuda, anaimbidwa mlandu ndi kuweruzidwa kundende chaka chimodzi chifukwa cha kukwatira ku Washington, D.C, ndiyeno kukhala ku Virginia. Khotilo linaona kuti malamulo a mafuko osiyana amaletsa kutetezera Clausnaus ndi Kutsatira Lamulo la Claus ndi Claus Wams Crease wa ku Geneth Commetic Refectivedment.
Chigamulo chinali ndi mipambo yambiri yofunika. Choyamba, khotilo linakana mfundo yakuti chitetezo chofanana chinali chokwanira chifukwa lamulolo linagwira ntchito mofanana kwa mafuko onse aŵiri, kuwona kuti kusankhana mitundu kunali koyenera kupendedwa kwambiri. Chachiŵiri, Khoti linazindikira ukwati kukhala ufulu wofunika kwambiri pansi pa Curtive Process Claus, lamulo limene pambuyo pake likatsimikizira kukhala wotsutsa milandu ya ukwati yauchiŵalo. [[FLT: 0] Act: Lamulo limeneli linawononga malamulo oletsa kuletsa kuyendetsa maufumu khumi ndi asanu ndi limodzi omwe anasungabe ndi limodzi ndipo linachotsa mzati wa ulamuliro wa kuyera kuchokera ku America.
Bakke (1978)
Nkhani ya kuvomereza inafikira Khoti mu . Machenjezo a University of California v. Bakke, chigamulo cholakwika chimene chinatulutsa malingaliro asanu ndi limodzi osiyana. Khoti linagamula kuti miyeso ya mafuko inali yosatsimikizirika koma kuti fuko likhoza kulingaliridwa kukhala mbali imodzi pakati pa zosankha zambiri. Woweruza Levis Powell's azindikira kusiyana kwa malingaliro a maphunziro monga chikondwerero chokakamiza chimene chingalungamitse malamulo a fuko. Chigamulo chimenechi chinakhazikitsa maziko a kutsimikiza kwa ntchito yovomereza m'zaka makumi anayi ndi zisanu mpaka zaka makumi anayi mpaka 5 za chigamulo cha Khoti [FT:] mu [FTS]
Kuchuluka kwa Malo Otchedwa Google (1903) ndi Kusiyana kwa Anthu
United States v. Windsor (2013): Federal Brigion of Holy African and Sex Age
[[DOLT:0] United States v. Windsor [FLT :2] adatsutsa Chigawo 3 cha Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), chimene chinalongosola ukwati wa boma monga mgwirizano wa mwamuna ndi mkazi. Edith Windsor ndi Thea Spyer adakwatira ku Canada ndipo anakhala ku New York, kumene kunazindikira ukwati wawo. Pamene Speter anamwalira, Windsor anakakamizidwa kupereka ndalama zoposa $63,000 m’misonkhongo ya dziko chifukwa chakuti DoMA analetsa ntchito ya Pernern Convenuty kuti asaone ukwati wawo. Khoti Lapamwamba linamenya Gawo 3 monga kuswa lamulo la chigawo cha Claus, loletsa kuti boma silikana kusiyanitsa ndi boma limodzi logwirizana ndi lamulo lovomerezetsa.
ct: [[FLT :1] Chigamulo chimenechi chinabwezeretsa mapindu a boma kwa zikwi za okwatirana a kugonana kololedwa ndi lamulo ndi kukhazikitsa maziko a chigamulo cha pambuyo pake cha Khoti pa kulingana kwa ukwati. Chizindikiro: Chinazindikiritsa nthaŵi yoyamba Khotilo linkazindikira kuti malamulo oukira amuna kapena akazi angaswe zitsimikizo za lamulo la chitetezo chofanana.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015: Ukwati Wolingana Mtundu Wonse
Zaka ziŵiri pambuyo pa Wolamulira . Khoti linamaliza ntchito yosunga kulingana kwa ukwati . [FLT] [[FLT]3] - "Obergefell v. Hodges. [Malamulo]. Mlanduwo unaphatikizapo kuletsa ukwati wa pakati pa maboma anayi. Woweruza Anthony Kennedy, kulemba za 5-4, anakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kwa kukwatira ndi kuyenera kwa kuchitika pa Kayendedwe ndi kutetezera Classiano ndi kuti okwatirana amodzimodziwo sangakhale otayidwa kanthu kena. Chigamu ya ukwati chigamulo chonse chofunikira kuvomereza maukwati onse kuti avomereze maukwati ovomerezekane.
[[FLT: 0]'Ict: Malamulo a ukwati wa kugonana wovomerezeka m'dziko lonselo, kutsimikizira ulemu ndi kufanana kwa LGBTQ+ anthu ndi mabanja awo. Chifaniziro: [ Ilo linaimira chimake cha zaka makumi ambiri za kugawana ndi njira yalamulo yoyendera LGBTQ+ ufulu ndi kukhazikitsa kuti malamulo a kugonana akuyang'anizidwa kwambiri pansi pa chitetezo cha Clauslea.
Kusintha kwa Kulingana kwa Zinthu
Kulingana kwa Mabanja ndi Bwalo Lamilandu
Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala likuyang'anira tsankho la akazi pa mlingo wofanana ndi wa Claus kuyambira m'ma 1970. Red v. Analemba [1971], Khoti linagonjetsa lamulo la Idaho losankha amuna pa akazi monga oyang’anira malo, kusonyeza nthaŵi yoyamba Khoti la Malamulo Olingana Claus kuti lipereke lamulo lokhudza kugonana. M'chaka chotsatira, FONTORO v. Richardson[FL:][3] [7]]), kuchuluka kwa khotilo kunanena kuti kugonana kuyenera kukhala kuganidwa ndi kupendedwa kosamalitsa, koma kusavomerezedwa konse. Mlango wotchuka mu mu muyezo wofanana [FLT: FRF] [FRAG]. [4]
Posachedwapa, Khotilo linalemba zitetezero za transgender kwa anthu mu Bostock v. Clayton County (2020), poona kuti tsankho limadalira pa kugonana kapena kutembenuza malo ena ndilo kukondera chifukwa cha kugonana kwa mutu wakuti VII wa Chilamulo cha ufulu wa anthu mu 1964. Pamene Bostock [ anali chigamulo chalamulo] chomasulira cha lamulo lalamulo, mapendedwe ake a chitetezo chofanana akupitirizabe kuchitika m'makhoti otsika.
Kusalingana Zachuma ndi Bwalo Lamilandu
Chitetezo cha Ulimikanizo cha Classia chimagwiritsidwa ntchito ku magawo odalira chuma kokha m'mikhalidwe yochepa. Khotilo lanena kuti maboma sangakane kuloŵa m'makhoti ozikidwa pa kusagwirizana kwa milandu yokhudzana ndi kuchonderera kwa apandu, monga mu Griffin v. Illinonia [1966]] [1966]], kapena sangakane mapindu a zaufulu popanda chitetezo chokwanira. Komabe, Khoti latsutsa kwambiri lingaliro lakuti kusalingana kwa chuma kokha kumaswa malamulo a m'malamulo. Mu Nthano yokha] A Antonio Independent School School [FLT:] [12] [197], khoti lochirikiza dongosolo la sukulu lozikidwa pa misonkhoma, likukana mfundo yakuti kuchirikiza kuyendetsa maphunziro ndi kuyendetsa chuma kwa kumanja kwa kumbuyo kwa kuyendetsa kwa sukulu.
Kulimbana ndi Kulingana Makhalidwe
Mosasamala kanthu za zosankha zosintha zaka makumi asanu ndi aŵiri zapitazo, kulimbana kwa kulingana kukupitirizabe m'madera ambiri. Kutumiza ufulu kwakhala kukutsenderezedwanso m'mbuyo mwa Shelby County v. Hoker [1] (2013]), kumene kunathetsa njira yofufuzira ya Courting Rights Act ya mu 1965. Maboma akhazikitsa malamulo osankha, gerrymerder , ndi kuchotsa mitu ya ovota m'njira zimene zikuyambukira anthu ochepa kwambiri. Ochuluka a khoti la kukayikira kwambiri za mankhwala a fuko ndi kachitidwe kodziwirika.
Chilungamo cha apandu chikusintha zinthu kukhala nkhaŵa yaikulu. Kumangidwa kwa anthu ambiri kwakhala ndi chiyambukiro chosakaza pa chitaganya cha Aafirika ndi Aspanic, ndipo Bwalo lamilandu lalongosola nkhani zoyambira pa tsankho la fuko m’kusankha kwa ajuli kufikira pakugwiritsira ntchito fuko m’bungwe. Kugaŵikana kwa fuko, umphaŵi, ndi dongosolo la chiweruzo laupandu lakhala lokulira ku ufulu wachibadwidwe wamakono ndipo likupereka mafunso osayankhidwa ponena za tanthauzo la kulingana mu lamulo.
Kujambula kwa maphunziro kukupitirizabe kuyambitsa. Chigamulo cha Khoti mu Zotsatira za Fair Adgicts . Harvard (2023) mokhutiritsa kuvomereza kwa mafuko m'maphunziro apamwamba, kufuna kuti mabungwe ayese kutsata kusiyana kwa mafuko ndi utali wa dziko. Chigamulo chimenechi chachititsa kupendanso kawirikawiri za njira zovomerezera ndi makambitsirano atsopano onena za mmene angapezere mwayi wofanana wa maphunziro m'chitaganya chosonyezedwa ndi kusiyana kwa mafuko ndi zachuma kopitirizabe.
Kuzindikira Kulingana kwa Anthu m’kalasi
Kwa aphunzitsi ophunzitsa nkhani zimenezi, njira zingapo zingathandize ophunzira kukwaniritsa kuvuta kwa kulingana. Choyamba, nkofunika kugogomezera kuti tanthauzo la kufanana lasintha kwambiri m'mbiri ya America ndi kuti kumasulira kogwirizana ndi malamulo kumasintha mogwirizana ndi mabungwe a anthu ndi kusintha makhalidwe a anthu. Chachiŵiri, ophunzira ayenera kuzindikira kuti Khoti Lapamwamba silimagwira ntchito popanda kanthu; zosankha zake zimasonyeza ndi kusonkhezera zochitika zambiri za ndale ndi chikhalidwe. Nkhani yachitatu, kufufuza kuyenera kuphatikizapo kusamala mfundo za nkhani iliyonse, mfundo zalamulo pambali zonse ziŵiri, ndi malingaliro a anthu ambiri ndi otsutsa malingaliro awo.
Kuyerekezera malingaliro kungapindulitsenso makambitsirano a m’kalasi. Mademokrase ambiri a lamulo la malamulo, kuphatikizapo Canada, South Africa, ndi Germany, atengera makonzedwe aulingana m'malamulo awo a pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yadziko II amene amapita patsogolo kuposa United States m’mbali zina. Kusanthula mmene makhoti ena afikira nkhani za tsankho, inde kachitidwe, ndipo kulingana kwa ukwati kungawonetse mbali za lamulo lalamulo la Amereka ndi zosankha zoikidwa m'malamulo athu alamulo.
Kumaliza
Khoti Lapamwamba lachita mbali yofunika kwambiri polongosola ndi kuteteza kulingana pansi pa Malamulo. Kuchokera ku Brown v. Board of Education mpaka ku . Hodgefell v. Hodges, zosankha zosintha zinthu zawonjezera chitetezo cholingana ndi kutsimikizira ulemu wa magulu osakhala pa unzika wonse. Komabe kulingana kwa jurisprudency sikunakhale mzera, ndipo zitokosoko zazikulu zatsala. Khoti lenileni lasintha m'kulembedwa ndi nzeru, ndi mikangano yapanthaŵi ino yovotera pa ufulu, ikuvomereza, inde, ndi kusiyanitsa ulemu pa kulingana ndi kulingana kwa kugonana.
Kumvetsa nkhani zimenezi ndi mbiri yake n’kofunika kuti munthu akhale nzika yodziŵa bwino. Malamulo a kulingana ndi chilungamo amene amalimbikitsa demokrase ya America safuna kudziwononga; amafuna kuti apitirize kutomerana, kutchuka, ndi kukhala maso. Pamene aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira akufufuza zosankha zapadera zimenezi, iwo amatenga nawo mbali pa mfundo za kumasulira kokhala ndi malamulo ndi kuthandiza kutsimikizira kuti anthu alingana. Chitsimikizo cha kulingana chidakali lonjezo lakuti mbadwo uliwonse uyenera kukwaniritsa.