Chiyambi: Mlanduwo wa Ufulu ndi Mbali Yake m’Chilango Chokulira

Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chilango cha imfa chakhala ku America kuyambira pa nyengo ya atsamunda, koma malamulo ozungulira chigamulocho asintha kwambiri. Bill of Rights, makamaka chiletso cha Eighth Amendment choletsa nkhanza ndi chilango chachilendo, kukhazikitsa Komphonya kwa Firefter , ndi kuyenera kwa Sikisi Demendment ku kuzenga mlandu, kwakhala maziko a mlandu uliwonse wamalikulu. Kumvetsa mmene makonzedwe ameneŵa amagwira ntchito kwa akaidi a mzera wa imfa kumafuna kupenda zonse ziŵiri mbiri yakale ndi nkhondo za masiku ano zalamulo. Nkhaniyi ikupereka kupenda kokwanira kwa chitetezo cha malamulo omwe alipo kwa malikulu ndi akaidi, zigamu za Supreme Court zimene zasintha malamulowo, ndi mikangano yopitirizabe imene ikulongosola mbali imeneyi ya lamulo.

Mbiri Yakale: Chilango Choopsa pa Kukhazikitsidwa kwa Nyumba ya Ufumu

Pamene Bill of Rights anavomerezedwa mu 1791, chilango cha imfa sichinali kokha chalamulo komanso chamwambo. Nyumba Yoyamba ya Malamulo, yomwe inafuna kuti athetsedwe, inavomerezanso chilango cha imfa pa milandu ya boma monga kuphana, kuukira boma, ndi kupha. Malamulo a Eighth Amendment, amene amaletsa "chilango chachikale ndi chilango chachilendo, " adavomerezedwa popanda kutsutsana kwakukulu, ndipo opanga zigamu zake sanafune kuchotseratu chilango cha imfa. Panthaŵiyo, kupha kunali zochitika zaponse, ndi njira zonga zopachika, kutentha pamtengo, ndi kujambula ndi kujambula zigawo zina zinali kugwiritsidwabe ntchito m’magulu osiyanasiyana.

Komabe, Chisinthiko cha Eighth chinachokera mu Commission yachingelezi ya Bill of Rights ya 1689, yomwe inaletsa "kubwezera ndi chilango chachilendo" poyankha ku nkhanza ya Stuart monarch . Makhoti a ku England adamasulira makonzedwe ameneŵa kuletsa chilango chimene chinali chosasiyana ndi mlandu kapena chimene chinayambitsa ululu wosafunikira. Opanga madesilamu a ku America anatumiza lamulo limeneli, koma anasiya tanthauzo lake lenileni kwa mibadwo yamtsogolo. M'kupita kwa nthaŵi, Khoti Lapamwamba likamasulira Demendement monga chikalata chamoyo chimene tanthauzo lake limasintha mogwirizana ndi " miyezo yokhudza kulimba kwa makhalidwe a anthu," mawu oyamba kulembedwa koyamba [FL:]. [5]

Kwa mbiri yaikulu ya ku America, Bill of Rights inapereka chitetezo chochepa kwa akaidi pa mzera wa imfa. MPUPUTSEREZO wa Eighth sunagwiritsiridwe ntchito ku maboma kufikira chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu chija cha Robinson . California [1] (1962]), yomwe inakhazikitsa kubwezedwa kwa kumbuyo kwa malamulo a kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma oletsa kukonzanso njira za kuletsa zankhondo za 1449 Claus. Pambuyo pake, malamulo a boma sankagwirizana ndi malamulo a boma. Ngakhale pambuyo pake khoti linakana kukhazikitsa malamulo opereka chilango chachiŵiri, kuletsa akaidi ndi njira zochepa za lamulo zotsutsa zigamu zawo kapena mikhalidwe yawo yotsekera.

Kukonzanso Zinthu kwa M’mbuyomo ndi Kuteteza Anthu Kuti Asalandire Chilango Chankhanza ndi Chachilendo

Chikalata cha Eight Emplified ndicho chitetezo chachikulu cha lamulo kwa akaidi otsata imfa. Malemba ake ndi achidule / "Siayenera kupatsidwa faindi yochuluka, kapena chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo choperekedwa" koma kugwiritsa ntchito kwake kwachititsa malingaliro mazana ambiri a Khoti Lalikulu. Chiletso choletsa nkhanza ndi chilango chachilendo chafotokozedwa kukhala ndi mitundu itatu ya zilango: zija zankhanza kapena zozunza, zimene zimafika poipa, ndi zimene zimaikidwa mopanda lamulo kapena molakwika.

Njira Zoopsa Zophera Anthu

Tanthauzo loyamba la "uchimo ndi lachilendo" linaphatikizapo chilango chimene chinaphatikizapo kuzunza kapena kufa. M’zaka za zana la 18, zimenezi zinaphatikizapo kuwotchedwa pamtengo, kuswa gudumu, kujambula ndi kujambula. Pamene njira zophera zinasintha, makhoti ankayenera kuona ngati njira zatsopano zikuswa Malamulo a Eight Reformation. Kupha, gasi wakupha, ndi jekeseni yakupha, zonsezo zinatsutsidwa, ndi chipambano chosiyanasiyana.

Mu Wilkerson v. Utah (1879], Khoti Lalikulu linachirikiza kuphedwa mwa kuombera, likumaona kuti inali njira yofala yophera ndipo silinapha ndi "nkhalwe zosayenerera" Mu Mu Kemtler [pambuyo pa zaka za zana la 20 za zana la] [1890]), Khoti linachirikiza kusankhidwa monga njira ya malamulo, kukana chitsutso chakuti linapereka chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo. Nkhani zoyambirira zimenezi zinapereka nzeru zazikulu zosankha njira zophera. Komabe, malo alamulo anasintha kwambiri kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri ndi makumi aŵiri monga umboni wa zamankhwala ndi wa sayansi wokhudza kupweteka ndi kuvutika.

Nyengo yamakono ya Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa Eighth pa njira zoperekera chilango inayamba ndi Baze v. Rees (2008), mmene Khoti Lalikulu linachirikiza mfundo za jekeseni wakupha zitatu za Kentucky. Khoti linakhazikitsa muyezo wofuna kutsata: njira yophera imaphwanya njira yachisanu ndi chitatu yokha ngati ikupereka upandu wa kuopsa koopsa kwa zinthu, ndipo ili ndi "kuthekera, kugwiritsidwa ntchito moyenerera" kumene kungachepetse kwambiri upanduwo. Muyezo umenewu watsimikizira kuti n’kovuta kuti akaidi akumane nawo, monga momwe ayenera kuzindikira njira ina imene ilipo ndi kusonyeza kuti njira yamakono imapangitsa kupweteka kosayenerera.

Posachedwapa, Gross[FLT . (2015], Khoti linachirikiza kugwiritsira ntchito kwa mankhwala osokoneza bongo pakati pa micnzolam monga mbali ya malamulo atatu a mankhwala, mosasamala kanthu kuti mankhwalawo sangachititse munthu kukhala ndi maso. Khoti linagamula kuti akaidiwo analephera kutchula njira ina yodziŵika ndi yopezeka. Bucklew v. Precy the ] , khoti linafotokozanso kuti akaidi amatsutsa njira yophetsa anthu.

Chilango Choipa

M'Chilamulo cha Edzi chiletsanso chilango chimene sichingafanane ndi upandu. M'chiweruzo cha imfa, lamulo limeneli lagwiritsidwa ntchito mwamphamvu kuchepetsa magulu a opalamula amene angaweruzidwe ku imfa. Coker v. Georgia [1] [77], Khoti Lapamwambalo linakhulupirira kuti chilango cha imfa ndicho chilango chosayerekezeka cha kugwirira chigololo mkazi wamkulu, chifukwa chakuti mlanduwo sunaphatikizepo kupha munthu. Khoti linalingalira kuti "imfa njosiyana ndi chilango china ndipo iyenera kusungidwa kaamba ka milandu ina yowopsa kwambiri.

Mu End v. Florida (19982], Bwalo Lamilandu linatsutsa kuti Kusintha kwa Eighth kumaletsa chilango cha imfa kwa woimbidwa mlandu amene anachita nawo m'maupandu amene anapha munthu koma sanaphe munthu aliyense payekha, kuyesa kupha, kapena kulinganiza kuti kupha kuchitike. Khoti linakulitsa kugwidwa TIS v. Arizona [1987], kugamula kuti chilango cha imfa chingaperekedwe kwa munthu wambanda wopha munthu amene anali "mayo kapena wothandizira" m'nkhani ya pansi pa moyo wa anthu wotayirira ndi kuchita ndi "'kunyalanyaza munthu wosadziŵa kanthu."

Kulinganiza mfundo kwagwiritsidwanso ntchito kutetezera magulu ena a oimbidwa mlandu. Attins v. Virginia [1] (2002], Bwalo Lamilandu linanena kuti kupha anthu opunduka maganizo kumawononga Eighth Amendment, chifukwa chakuti kuchepa kwa mphamvu yawo ya maganizo kumachotsa makhalidwe awo olakwika. Khoti linasiya m'zigawo kuti afotokoze kupunduka kwa nzeru, kutsogolera ku kupitiriza kupenda miyezo yofufuza. Momwemo, Rhoper v. Simmon [[FL:200] [200]], Khoti linakhulupirira kuti chilango cha imfa ndi kulephera kuweruza anthu olakwa amene anali ndi zaka za zaka khumi ndi zisanu ndi zitatu, zomwe za kupotoza, kupotoza malamulo a kulakwa kwa [FLT]

Posachedwapa, Florida . Florida (2014 ndi Moere v. Texas , khoti linagonjetsa malamulo a boma amene anagwiritsira ntchito zolimba IQoffase ziŵerengero za kupunduka kwa nzeru, kukakamiza kuti makhoti alingalire miyezo ya masamu ndi kulola mayeso. Milandu imeneyi imasonyeza kufunitsitsa kwa Khoti kukhazikitsa kulinganiza kwa Severt Amendment kulinganiza ngakhale pamene maboma ayesa kuigwiritsa ntchito kwake.

Kufa kwa Anthu Ovutika

Mphindi yachitatu ya Eight Conflation ikunena za njira zimene boma limaikira chilango cha imfa. Mu Furman v. Georgia [77], Khoti Lalikulu linatulutsa lingaliro lapamwamba pa jini iliyonse lonena kuti chilango cha imfa, monga momwe chinaperekedwera malamulo a boma omwe analipo, chinaswa malamulo a boma. Lamulolo linaswa, ndi maŵeruzi asanu alionse m'kalembedwe ka anthu, koma linali lodetsa nkhaŵa kuti chilango chachikulu chinali chololera ndi chosasinthika. Woweruza woweruza wotchuka anayerekezera imfa ndi "kuphetsa mphezi," akulingalira kuti chilangocho chinaikidwa mwamwambo ndi m'malamulo ndi m'malamulo.

Poyankha [[FLT: 0] Furman , mayiko ambiri anapanga malamulo atsopano opangira chilango cha imfa olinganizidwa kutsogolera kutsegulira milandu ya ajuli ndi kutsimikizira kuti chilango cha imfa chinasungidwa kaamba ka milandu yoipirapo. Malamulo ameneŵa anatsogolera mlandu kukhala liwongo ndi chilango, zoperekedwa kaamba ka kutsogolera kupyola zinthu zotetezera ndi kuchotsa, ndi kufuna kupenda kodzifunira. Khoti linachirikiza malamulo atsopano ameneŵa mu [[FLT:]. Georgia [[FLT:]] [12] [6] ndi milandu ya mabwenzi, kugamula kuti chilango cha imfa chinali chosakhudzana ndi kuti chitetezero chatsopano chinali chokwanira kulongosola za [FFFFFFF:]

Komabe, Khoti lapitiriza kugamulapo mzera pakati pa luntha lotsogozedwa ndi kuletsa. Godfrey v. Georgia (1980), khoti linagamula chigamulo cha imfa chifukwa chakuti bwalo lamilandu linali ndi chifukwa chakuti linkafotokoza za kupha kwabwino kwambiri, kulephera kupereka chitsogozo chatanthauzo kwa ajuli. Maynard v. Cartright V. Cartright [1988], Khoti linakhulupirira kuti vuto la kupha munthu linali "lasa, lonyansa, lankhanza" linali losamveka bwino. Zigamu zimenezi zimafuna kufotokoza zinthu mopanda pake.

Zimene Ziyenera Kuchitika Ndiponso Kuyenera Kopereka Chiyeso Choyenera

Kupyola pa Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwachisanu ndi 14 kutsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene adzamanidwa "moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda dongosolo loyenerera la lamulo" m'nkhani za imfa, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kumamatira mosamalitsa ku chilungamo kuti aikidwe ku kuphedwa. Khoti Lapamwamba lagogomezera mobwerezabwereza kuti "imfa njosiyana" ndi kuti chitetezo chakuthupi chofunikira m’nkhani za imfa n’chofunika kwambiri kuposa m’milandu wamba yaupandu.

Kutsatira Makonzedwe Pozengedwa Mlandu

Kuyenera kwa kuzenga mlandu koyenera kuli kofunika m'milandu yonse, koma kumakhala kofunika kwambiri pamene woimbidwa mlanduyo ayang'anizana ndi chilango cha imfa. Mlandu wa Sixth Amendment umatsimikizira kuyenera kwa mlandu wa mwamsanga ndi wapoyera, juli wopanda tsankho, kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni, kuyenera kwa kukakamiza kwa kupeza mboni, ndi kuyenera kwa kuthandizira uphungu. Stickland v. Washington . [19984], Khoti Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa kuti woneneza mlandu wosaphula kanthu wa uphungu ayenera kusonyeza kuti kuchita bwino ndi kuti kulephera kwa kukana mlandu. Mlanduko, milandu ya kunyada kwa limachita ndi kulephera kutsimikizira, kapena kulephera kupereka chilango cha mlandu, kapena kuweruza mlandu kolakwa.

Chiganizo choyenerera chikufunanso kuti oimbidwa mlanduwo alandire chidziŵitso chokwanira cha milandu ndi chigamulo chimene chingapezeke, mwaŵi wa kupereka chidzitetezero, ndi mwaŵi wa kutsutsa umboni wa boma. Mu Herrera v. Collins [1] (1993), Bwalo lamilandu linatsutsa kuti kukana kwa kulakwa kwenikweni kozikidwa pa umboni wopezedwa chatsopano sikumachitira, mwa ikokha, kutanthauza kuti mkaidi wa imfa wa boma Habeas corpus perpus, koma Khoti linasiya kuthekera kwakuti kudzinenera koteroko kungachitidwe kupyolera ku makampani. Chigamulo chasuliri cha kupangira chopinga chokhoza kupulumutsa anthu opanda liwongo.

Kutsatira Machitidwe a Kupitiriza kwa Pambuyo pa Kugaŵidwa

Pambuyo pa chigamulo chamalikulu ndi chilango, akaidi otsata imfa akupitiriza kusangalala ndi njira zofunikira mkati mwa kupenda ndi kuchonderera. Kuyenera kwa kufunsira chilango cha imfa sikumatsimikizidwa ndi Konsichushoni, koma chigamulo chonse cha malikulu chimapereka kaamba ka kupenda kwa lamulo kwa lamulo, ndipo Bwalo Lamilandu Lalikulu lafuna kuti kubwereramo kukhale kwatanthauzo. m'malangizo owonjezereka otetezera [FLT:] V. [196] (86), Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti Send Reformation imaletsa kuphedwa kwa mkaidi amene ali wachisoni, ndi kuti njira yoyenerera imafunikira kumvedwa bwino pa nkhani ya kupikisana. Khoti lina linayeretsa chitetezo m' [FLT:] v. [FLT.FGeneka:] [200] [200]

Njira yoyenerera imaletsanso kachitidwe ka kulolera, komwe kumatumikira monga kuyang'anira komalizira pa zigamulo za imfa. Mu Ohio Adult Parole Authority v. Wooard, Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti kuweruza kuyenera kukhala ndi zofunika zochepa zofunikira, koma Khoti linalephera kukhazikitsa zofunika zatsatanetsatane, kusiya maulamuliro opangika a kulinganiza zinthu malinga ndi mmene zikuona kuti n’koyenera.

Chizindikiro cha Khoti Lalikulu Loletsa Ufulu wa Kufa

[[FULT:0]Furman v. Georgia (1972]

Mlanduwuwu unatha m'lamulo la imfa ku America. Khoti Lalikulu, m'chigamulo cha 5-4, linagonjetsa bwino lomwe malamulo onse opereka chilango cha imfa, kugamula kuti kuphwanya lamulo la imfa ndi kuphwanya chilango cha imfa cha Eight ndi 14th Amendments. Chigamulocho chinatulukapo kuphatikizapo zigamulo zoposa 600 za imfa ndi kupha kumene kunalipo mpaka 1976. Pamene kuli kwakuti Furman] Firman sanachotse chilango cha imfa, chinakakamiza kugamulanso njira zawo zoperekera chilango chamalikulu.

Gregg v. Georgia (1976)

Mu Khotilo linagamula kuti chilango cha imfa chikhale zolinga zovomerezeka za kulembedwa kwa munthu, kugawa ndi kuletsa, khoti Lalikulu linachirikiza lamulo la chilango cha imfa pansi pa malamulo a boma amene angokhazikitsidwa kumene amene anapereka mlandu wozengedwa, kugamula kotsogolera juli, ndi kubwereza kodzifunira. Khotilo linalamula kuti chilango cha imfa chikhale choyenera kulembedwa pa zonulirapo ndi kuletsa kusungidwa kwa lamulo. Gregg [[FL:3] motsimikizirika] inamaliza zaka zinayi za kupha anthu ndi kutsimikiziranso kuti chilango chamalikulu chiri chalamulo.

Atkins v. Virginia (2002]

Mu Atkins , Bwalo lamilandu linatsutsa kuti kupha anthu okhala ndi kupunduka kwa nzeru kumaswa Sengleh Amendment chifukwa chakuti sikumagwira ntchito yololeza ndipo kuli kosagwirizana ndi kulephera kwawo kwa makhalidwe. Chigamulocho chidalamuliridwa [[[FLT:] Penry v. Lyntaugh [1] [1998] [1998], chimene chinalola kuperekedwa kwa opunduka a nzeru. [[FLT: 4.] Atkins [[FLT:] adadalira pa miyezo yokhudza ulemu, yosonyezedwa ndi malamulo ndi kuvomereza kwa zauchitukukira. Chigamulo chatsogolera kulongosola kwapadera ndi kulongosola kwa kupunduka kwauka kwauka kwauka kwa umoyo.

.Simmons (2005]

Mu , Khoti linakhulupirira kuti chilango cha imfa nchosavomerezedwa kwa olakwa amene anali pansi pa zaka khumi mphambu zisanu ndi zitatu panthaŵi ya upandu wawo. Khotilo linapereka umboni wa sayansi wokhudza kukula kwa ubongo wa achichepere, umene umasonyeza kuti achinyamata ndi achikulire pang’ono, okhoza kwambiri kukakamizika ndi anzawo, ndipo okhoza kukonzanso zinthu kuposa achikulire. Chigamulo cha pa lamulo la [ ... Constantine v. Kentucky (19989) ndi kubweretsa United States kulinganiza ndi malamulo a mitundu yonse, monga momwe United States inalili imodzi ya maiko angapo amene anapha olakwa.

[[MLT: 0] BECV. Rees (2008) ndi Grosssip v. Gross (2015)

Milandu imeneyi inakhazikitsa njira zamakono zothetsera mavuto a njira yoopsa ndi njira yochepetsera ngozi. M' Bluze , khoti linavomereza kuti njira yophera inachititsa kuti njirayi ikhale yoopsa kwambiri ndipo ikhoza kuchepetsa kwambiri ngozi imeneyi. Glossip [1], Khoti linagwiritsa ntchito njira imeneyi kuchirikiza kugwiritsa ntchito masamu a m'magazi a Oklahoma, kukana kuti mankhwalawo amachititsa kupweteka koopsa. Mapanganowa achititsa kuti kukhale kosatheka kwa a andende kuti apeze njira yophetsa, monga mmene khoti lalongosolera, liyenera kuwadziŵira, monga momwe limachitira.

Backlew v. Precythe (209)

Mu Bucklew . Khoti linawonjezeranso muyezo wa njira yophera anthu. Khoti linatsutsa kuti mkaidi wotsutsa njira yake yakupha ayenera kusiyanitsa njira yothekera ndi yogwiritsiridwa ntchito mosavuta imene ingachepetse kwambiri ululu waukulu. Khotilo linakananso mfundo yakuti mkaidi angatsutse njira yophera munthu malinga ndi mkhalidwe wake wapadera wa zamankhwala, kugamula kuti kupezeka kwa njira ina ya kupha kuyenera kupendedwa m’malo mwa kudalira pa mikhalidwe ya akaidi.

Kukangana kwa Masiku Ano ndi Nkhani Zosathetsedwa

Kumwa Mankhwala Osokoneza Bongo ndi Kupereŵera kwa Mankhwala Osokoneza Bongo

Mwinamwake nkhani yochititsa chidwi kwambiri ya chilango cha imfa ndiyo mkangano wopitirizabe wa malamulo akupha. Kuyambira kuma 2000, makampani a mankhwala atsutsa kugwiritsira ntchito mankhwala awo popha, zimene zachititsa kusoŵa kwa mankhwala opha anthu m’dziko lonselo. Chifukwa cha zimenezi, mayiko ambiri ayamba kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, kubisa anthu amene amawagulitsa mankhwalawo, ndi kuyambitsa njira zowonjezera mankhwalawa.

Otsutsa amanena kuti kugwiritsira ntchito malamulo oyesera mankhwala kumayambitsa ululu ndi kuvutika kosayenera, makamaka pamene magulu opha anthu akusoŵa maphunziro a zamankhwala. Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu mu Glossip ndi ndi [FLT]] [[FLT]] Bucklew [] [] yapangitsa kuti kukhale kovuta kwa akaidi kutulukira mankhwala ndi njira zogwiritsidwa ntchito, kuwasiya kuti alephere kutsimikizira kuswa malamulo alamulo. Malamulo achinsinsi a boma, monga aja a ku Oklas, Texas, ndi Missouri, kuphetsa malamulo oyenderapo mfundo zapo, kutsendereza kwa lamulo la lamulo la lamulo. Kusoŵa kwa mankhwala kwachititsanso mayiko ena kulingalira njira zina, kuphatikizapo kutulutsa mafuta, kuombera, ndi kuomberana, ndi kuomberana kwa majenito, mafunso a bungwe lililonse la lamulo la boma.

Kupikisana Maganizo ndi Vuto Losalimba

Chiletso cha lamulo choletsa kupha openga, chokhazikitsidwa mu Ford v. Wainwright . (1986), chikupitirizabe kutulutsa . Muyezo wa mpikisano umafuna kuti mkaidi akhale ndi chidziŵitso chomvekera bwino cha chifukwa chake akuphedwa, koma makhoti ayesetsa kugwiritsira ntchito muyezo umenewu kwa akaidi odwala matenda aakulu a maganizo, matenda opazaza, kapena kupunduka kwa thupi. Madison v. Alabama . [FLT] [FLT] [20:3]]), Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti mkaidi wa a njiru amene sakukumbukira kulakwa kwake anali woyenerera chifukwa chakuti anapachikidwa chifukwa cha kupha. Chigamu cha kusoŵa mlandu wokanika ndi makhoti ambiri.

Nkhani ya thanzi lamaganizo pa imfa ili yaikulu kwambiri chifukwa chakuti kutsekeredwa kwanthaŵi yaitali pansi pa mikhalidwe yosautsa kungawonjezere matenda a maganizo. Kufufuza kwasonyeza kuti akaidi ambiri ogwidwa ndi imfa amavutika ndi matenda aakulu a maganizo, ndipo kudzipatula ndi kupsinjika kwa mzera wa imfa kungakakamize akaidi ku matenda a maganizo kapena kupsinjika maganizo. Lamulo la Eighth Amendment loletsa nkhanza ndi chilango chachilendo lingafunikire maulamuliro kuti apereke chisamaliro cha thanzi chokwanira kwa akaidi ogwidwa m’makwalala, koma lingakhale losamveka.

Kusiyana kwa Fuko ndi Makhalidwe a Zachuma

Mosasamala kanthu za zitetezero za lamulo zoperekedwa ndi Bill of Rights, kusiyana kwa mafuko ndi kakhalidwe ka anthu kukupitirizabe m'dongosolo lonse la chilango cha imfa. Kufufuza kochuluka kwasonyeza kuti chilango cha imfa chimaperekedwa mopambanitsa kwa oimbidwa mlandu amene amapha mikole yachiyera, kwa Oimbidwa mlandu Akuda, ndi kwa oimbidwa mlandu omwe ali osauka. Khoti Lapamwamba lavomereza kusiyanitsa kumeneku koma lakana kunena kuti iwo amaswa Lamulolo popanda umboni wa kusankhana mwadala m’nkhani ina.

Mu BClekey v. Kemp (1987), Bwalo lamilandu linakana chitokoso kwa dongosolo lopereka chilango la likulu la Georgia lozikidwa pa kufufuza kokwanira kosonyeza kuti oimbidwa mlandu amene anapha anthu oyera anali othekera kwambiri kulandira chilango cha imfa kuposa awo amene anapha anthu Akuda. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti umboni wa kusiyanitsa mafuko, kuima lokha, nkosakwanira kukhazikitsa madetimeshoni a 8 kapena kuswa chitetezo chofanana. Chiweruzocho chasulizidwa mofala chifukwa cha kuika mtolo wosatheka pa osulizidwa kutsimikizira chiweruzo mwadala m’nkhani zawo. Monga chotulukapo, tsankho laufuko limakhalabe losaletsedwa kwenikweni ndi lamulo la lamulo.

Mkhalidwe wa kakhalidwe ka zachuma umachitanso mbali yaikulu m'nkhani za imfa. Otetezera amene sangapereke uphungu waumwini kaŵirikaŵiri amaimiridwa ndi ochirikiza audindo audindo opambanitsa ndi osapatsidwa ndalama zokwanira zochitira kufufuza kokwanira ndi kupereka umboni wokwanira. Mkhalidwe wa kuimira kwalamulo uli ndi chiyambukiro chachindunji pa kaya woimbidwa mlandu wa imfa, koma Konsichushoniyo imatsimikizira kokha kuti uphungu ukhale wogwira ntchito, osati kuti uphunguwo uli wochirikizidwa mokwanira. Operekedwa ndi madongosolo a otetezera anthu onse m'maiko ambiri amapanga ngozi yadongosolo lakuti oimbidwa mlandu wopanda liwongolakwa ndi kuti oyenera kuweruzidwa kuti aweruzidwe ku imfa popanda kuimira kwalamulo kwalamulo.

Lamulo la Padziko Lonse ndi Miyezo Yosalondola

United States ndi limodzi la maiko angapo otukuka amene akusunga chilango cha imfa, ndi kugwiritsira ntchito kwake chilango cha imfa kwabweretsa chisulizo kuchokera ku mabungwe a ufulu wa anthu a dziko lonse ndi maboma achilendo. Khoti Lapamwamba nthaŵi zina latchula ntchito ya mitundu yonse m'zosankha zake za Eighth Amendment, makamaka mu . Simmons ndi [FLT] Acts v. Virginia , kumene Khoti linazindikira kuti United States inali yosafunika pakati pa mabwenzi ake. Komabe, Bwalo lagawidwa pa malamulo a mitundu yonse, ndi zoweruza zina zotsutsa kuti kachitidwe kachilendo sikanakhudza tanthauzo la malamulo.

Chikhoterero cha padziko lonse cha kuchotsedwa kwa chilango cha imfa nchosatsutsika. Pa 2025, maiko oposa 100 achotsa chilango cha imfa pa milandu yonse, ndipo ambiri aleka kugwiritsira ntchito kwake. United States adakali limodzi la maiko oŵerengeka amene akupitirizabe kupha akaidi, limodzi ndi China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, ndi Iraq. Kuvomereza komakulakulakulakulakula kwa mitundu yonse motsutsana ndi chilango cha imfa kungachititse kupeputsa kwa mtsogolo kwa Eighth Amendment, monga momwe Khoti Lapamwamba likuganizira ngati "kutsatira miyezo ya ulemu" imaphatikizapo miyezo ya mitundu yonse.

Tsogolo la Chitetezo cha Malamulo kwa Akaidi Oyenda Pamzere wa Imfa

Malo alamulo a akaidi pamzera wa imfa amapangidwa ndi kugwirizanitsa pakati pa Khoti Lalikulu, malamulo, ndi lingaliro la anthu. Khoti Lalikulu lamakono limakayikira kwambiri zitokoso za milandu ya Eighth Amendment, makamaka m'njira yophera, ndipo lasonyeza kuchedwetsa ku ziŵeruzo za boma. Komabe, khotilo lapitirizabe kukakamiza chitetezo chakuthupi m’milandu yokhudza kupunduka kwa nzeru, kupikisana maganizo, ndi ophwanya malamulo achichepere, kusonyeza kuti malamulo alamulo akhalabe osasintha.

Nkhani zingapo za kutsogoloku zingabwezeretse lamulo. Zovuta za kugwiritsira ntchito nayitrogen hypoxia ndi njira zina zatsopano zophera anthu n’zothekera kufika ku Khoti m’zaka zikubwerazi, monga momwe maboma akuyesera njira zina zophera . Nkhani ya kuikidwa kwa nthaŵi yaitali pa mzera wa imfa imakhala yankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo. Nkhani ya kukanidwa kwa munthu ndi kukanidwa m'makhoti apamwamba kuti abwezerenso chigamulo chake mu [FLD:]. [FLP]

Pomalizira pake, Bill of Rights imapereka maziko otetezera ufulu walamulo wa akaidi pa mzera wa imfa, koma kugwira ntchito kwa dongosololo kumadalira pa kumasulira ndi kutsata lamulo. Lamulo la Eighth Amendment kuletsa nkhanza ndi chilango chachilendo, Kusintha kwachisanu ndi chiŵiri kwa kutsimikizira za njira zoyenerera, ndipo kuyenera kwa Sikisi Demendment ya kuzenga mlandu kuli ziŵiya zamphamvu kwambiri zoperekera kuphedwa kopanda chilungamo. Komabe, malamulo a malamulo ameneŵa samadziphera okha, ndipo amafuna kuti achenjeze oimira ufulu wa anthu oteteza ufulu wa anthu, ndi makhoti kutsimikizira kuti lonjezo la Bill of Rights Rights lapezedwa kaamba ka kulangidwa kopanda chilungamo.

Kumaliza

Bill of Rights yaumba kwambiri ufulu wa lamulo wa akaidi ofera, kukhazikitsa malamulo otetezera amene amaletsa njira zophera, kuletsa chilango chosatsutsika ndi chopanda chifukwa, ndi kutsimikizira kuti palibe chilungamo chakuweruza mlandu. Malamulo a Eighth Amendment, makamaka, akhala maziko a malamulo osintha zinthu omwe amateteza anthu ndi luntha la maganizo, opalamula achinyamata, ndi akaidi amene akhala openga. Matanthauzo a Khoti Lapamwamba la kukonzanso zimenezi amasonyeza makhalidwe a anthu ndiponso nzeru za sayansi, monga momwenso Bwalo lachitira nthaŵi zina kutetezera anthu a m'bungwe.

Ngakhale kuti pali chitetezo chimenechi, kusiyana kwakukulu kukupitirizabe. Kusiyana kwa mafuko ndi kwa kakhalidwe ka anthu kukupitirizabe kusakaza njira ya chilango cha imfa. Kubisa malamulo operekera chilango sikumathetsa kupenda kwamphamvu kwa chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo. Kupereŵera kwa mankhwala kwachititsa maboma kutenga njira zosayesedwa ndi zopweteka. Chitsenderezo cha padziko lonse choletsa chilango cha imfa chikupitirizabe. Chilango cha ufulu wa munthu sichingathetse mavuto aakulu ameneŵa, koma chidakali choyang’anira bwino mphamvu ya boma ndi chiyembekezo cha akaidi oyembekezera kuphedwa ofunafuna chilungamo.

Pamene mikangano yonena za chilango cha imfa ikupitirizabe, ufulu walamulo woikidwa m’buku la Bill of Rights udzakhalabe wofunika kwambiri ku makambitsirano alamulo ndi a makhalidwe abwino.

[[FLT: 0] Kuŵerenganso za chilango cha imfa cha Khoti Lalikulu, onani Kupenda kwa chilango cha imfa [[FLT:] ndi [[FLT:] Development ] Development Center [[FLT:] Development Center ya imfa [[FL:]] ndi [FLT:] Development Center] kufufuza ndi ziŵerengero za imfa [[FLT:]]. Kufufuza mwatsatanetsatane za mlandu wa Eightand reconsolement, [FLT:] lakufufuza [FLT] la ufulu wa anthu, ndi lakusintha kwa ntchito yoweruza zaunyinjika]. [FL:]