Kumvetsetsa Malingaliro Aŵiri Opatuka: Zitetezero za Malamulo ndi Malamulo a Chikho

Lamulo la kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri liri limodzi la zitetezero zofunika koposa m'lamulo laupandu, kuletsa boma kuchititsa munthu kumangidwa kwamilandu yambiri kapena chilango cha mlandu umodzimodziwo. Chitetezero chimenechi chazikidwa kwambiri m'mwambo walamulo wa Anglo-America, wokhala ndi kutsata kumbuyo kwa lamulo la Roma lakale ndi lamulo lachingelezi lofala mawu a debet bis vis e ana ea causa .

Ku United States, ngozi ziŵiri zimatetezeredwa ndi Fite Amendment ku Malamulo, amene amanena kuti palibe munthu “adzaikidwa m’ngozi yofananayo kaŵiri. Chitsimikiziro chimenechi chimagwira ntchito ku maboma kudzera mu Accounting Procession ya 144th Amendment Claus. Cholinga chachikulu ncha katatu: kuteteza anthu pa milandu ya zachuma, yamaganizo, ndi ya mbiri yabwino ya kumangidwa mobwerezabwereza; kusungitsa kutha kwa ziweruzo; ndi kuletsa oweruza kulakwa kapena kuvutitsidwa.

Chitetezerocho chikaikidwa pangozi . Mwachidziŵikire pambuyo pa kuikidwa kwa ajuli ndi kulumbira m'zengero la juli, kapena pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira m'kuzenga mlandu wa ben. Pakaikidwa chiwopsezo, kukanidwa kapena kugamulidwa kwa mlandu wotsatirapo. Komabe, tanthauzo lenileni la “chilango chimodzi” ndi mikhalidwe imene ingakhale umboni wa m'mbuyomo ungagwiritsidwe ntchito m'kuzenga kwa pambuyo pake kufunikira kusanthula kosamalitsa.

Kodi Malo Oyenera Kulowamo Amagwiritsa Ntchito Kawiri Kangati Kudziika pa Tchesi?

Zokometsera Zaupandu

Ngati mlandu wazembe uyamba kuperekedwa, kuopsa kuyenera kuikidwa. M'kuzengedwa mlandu ndi oweruza, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene ajuli alumbiridwa. Mlandu uyamba kutsimikizira. Ngati mlandu uchotsedwa asanagwirizanitse ngozi, boma lingabwezere milandu popanda kuswa Malamulo. Kusiyanitsa kumeneku nkofunika chifukwa chakuti kumasankha ngati mlandu wotsatirawo umatengedwa kukhala “wachiŵiri” chifukwa cha mlandu.

Kulakwa

Ngati woimbidwa mlandu wamasulidwa (kupezedwa wopanda liwongo), ngozi yoŵirikiza imatsekeratu mlandu wa upandu umodzimodziwo, mosasamala kanthu za mmene kulakwa kwa kukhululukidwako kungakhaleri. Khoti Lapamwamba lanena kuti ngakhale kulakwa kwalamulo sikungapangidwe kapena kutengedwanso. Mosiyana ndi, ngati mlandu utha m’maweruzi olakwa , mwachitsanzo, chifukwa cha juli yopachikidwa kapena kuwonekera bwino. Woimbidwayo angabwezedwe popanda kulakwa koŵirikiza kaŵiri, malinga ngati mlanduwo sunadzudzudzulidwe ndi kulakwa kwa mlandu wofuna kusonkhezera woimbidwa mlanduyo kuti asamukire kulakwa.

Lingaliro la “Kulakwa kwa M’nyumba Yanu”: Kuyesedwa kwa Blockburger

Funso lalikulu lokhudza ngozi ziŵiri ndilo ngati milandu yachiŵiri ili ya “kulakwa kumodzi” monga kuja kwa poyamba. Kuyesa kotsogolera ndiko kuyesa kwa thanburger [, kokhazikitsidwa mu . United States [1932] [mayeso]. Mayeso ameneŵa, aŵiri ngofanana ngati aliyense safuna umboni wa mbali ina imene inayo siichita. M’mawu ena, ngati upandu uli wochepa, mlandu wa onse aŵiriwo ungawononge ngozi. Komabe, ngati upandu uliwonse wachitika pa mbali imodzi yapadera, umalingaliridwa kukhala wosiyana ndi woyesedwa motsatira.

Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wamasulidwa kukuba koma pambuyo pake ataimbidwa mlandu wa kuukira kochitika kofananako, khoti liyenera kupenda mbali za malamulo. Mwachibadwa lofuna kulanda katundu mwa kukakamiza kapena kuwopseza, pamene kuukira kumafuna kuvulaza kapena kuopa kuvulaza kwa thupi. Ngati sikufuna kulanda, milanduyo ingasiyane. Koma ngati mlanduwo uli wofanana ndi khalidwe logawidwa kale, ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri ingauike pansi pa chiphunzitso .

Colleteral Estopel ndi Nkhani Yodzitsekera

Maupandu aŵiri amaphatikizanso lamulo la kupenda estopel, nthaŵi zina lotchedwa nkhani ya kutsegulidwa, limene limaletsa boma kuyambitsa nkhani imene inagamulidwa m’chiyanjo cha woimbidwa mlanduyo poyambirira. Mlandu waukulu ndiwo Aspeas. Senson (1970]), kumene Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuti pambuyo pa kulandidwa kwa woimbidwa mlandu wa kuberedwa mmodzi wa mikhole isanu ndi umodzi, boma silinamlole iye chifukwa cha kuba mkhole wina chifukwa chakuti chigamupeza kukhala wosakhala mmodzi wa achifwamba. Collalteral estol estol eel stol akutumikira kuletsa boma “kuphwanya mlandu umodzi waupandu kuloŵa m’chiweruzi.

Kugwiritsira Ntchito Umboni m’Mayeso Otsatira: Mafaelo Otchuka

Ngakhale pamene ngozi ziŵiri sizimaletsa mlandu wachiŵiri, chifukwa chakuti milanduyo iri ya milandu yosiyana kapena chifukwa chakuti mlandu woyamba unatha popanda chiweruzo chomalizira — funso la umboni wa kuzenga mlandu koyamba lingakhale lofunikabe. Makhoti ayenera kulinganiza phindu lowonjezereka la umboni wotsutsa upandu wopanda chilungamo, makamaka umboni umene ungapereke umboni wa kulakwa kapena machitidwe oipa a mpandu a m’mbuyomo.

Kaŵirikaŵiri, umboni wochokera ku kuzenga mlandu kusanachitike ungagwiritsiridwe ntchito m’kuzenga kotsatirapo ngati: (1) zinenezozozo ziri zosiyana ndi ngozi ziŵiri sizimagwira ntchito; (2) umboni uli woyenerera ndi zinthu zolembedwa ku nkhani yachiŵiri; ndi (3) phindu lake lakudziika patsogolo pa chiyambukiro chilichonse cha kusuliza. Komabe, kugwiritsira ntchito kwa umboni umene unaperekedwa ndi kukanidwa, kapena umboni umene unali nkhani ya munthu wopatulidwa, kumadzutsa nkhaŵa zapadera.

Umboni wa Khalidwe Loyenera

Nkhani yotsutsana ndi yakuti boma lingagwiritsire ntchito umboni wa khalidwe limene woimbidwa mlanduyo anamasulidwapo m'kuzengedwa mlandu kumbuyoko monga mbali ya mlandu watsopano. Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula zimenezi mu United States v. Watts [1997]], poona kuti khoti loweruza lingaone kuti likhoza kuweruza mlandu popanda mlandu ngati litsimikiziridwa ndi umboni wa mlanduwo. Pambuyo pake, Dowling v. United States [1990]), khoti likhoza kutsutsa kwambiri umboni wa mlandu womalizira wa mlandu wochotsedwa poyamba kusonyeza kapena cholinga chake m’nkhani yosiyana, malinga ngati woweruzayo adalangizidwa ndi kuchotsedwa kwa upanduwo.

Posachedwapa, Khoti mu Wiscon v. Mitchell (1993) linalola umboni wa mawu otetezeredwa (mawu oyambirira a woimbidwa mlandu) m'nkhani ya upandu wakuda, ngakhale kuti mawuwo sanakhale aupandu. Mfungulo njakuti umboni sugwiritsiridwa ntchito kulanga khalidwe loyamba koma kutsimikizira mbali ya mlandu watsopano.

Kusiyana ndi Mikhalidwe Yapadera

Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Zopatukana

Pansi pa chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha aŵiri, maulamuliro osiyanasiyana (m’chitsanzo, a boma ndi a boma) angaimbe mlandu munthu mmodzimodziyo kaamba ka mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo popanda kuswa ngozi yoŵirikiza. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti kukhululukidwa m'khoti la boma sikumaletsa boma kuweruza mlandu wa kachitidwe kamodzimodziko, ndi kutsutsana ndi . Mwachitsanzo, munthu womasulidwa wakupha m’khoti la boma angaimbidwe mlandu wa udani wozikidwa pa kupha kofananako. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chasulizidwa koma chikhalabe lamulo. Umboni wa kuzengagwiritsiridwe ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri m' kuzenga mlandu kwachiŵiri, malinga ngati chikhoti chikhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito pansi pa malamulo a khotilo.

Kukonzanso Zinthu Pambuyo pa Kukopa Kwachipambano

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu achonderera chitsimikizo ndi kupambana kubwezera chiwongolero, boma limaloledwa kaŵirikaŵiri kuyesa woimbidwa mlanduyo kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Chifuno nchakuti woimbidwa mlanduyo, mwakukopa, amachotsa chitetezero ku kuzenga kwachiŵiri . Kusinthako sikunali chifukwa cha umboni wosakwanira (umene ukakhala kusudzulidwa kaamba ka zifuno ziŵiri zoikidwiratu). M'bwalo lamilandu, umboni umene unagwiritsiridwa ntchito m’kuzenga wovomerezeka, koma malamulo alionse owonekera bwino amene anali maziko a apimitsira mlanduwo angayambukire zimene zingayambitse. Mwachitsanzo, ngati umboni ukanakhala wovomerezedwa molakwika, sungathenso kugwiritsidwa ntchito pokha ngati cholakwa chalamulocho kapena umboniwongolondola.

Mlandu Umene Unazengedwa Kapena Unachotsedwa

Monga momwe taonera, kulakwa kwa mlandu wa oweruza opachikidwa kapena kuonekera bwino kaŵirikaŵiri kumalola kugamulanso mlandu. M'nkhani zoterozo, umboni wa kuzenga mlandu kochotsedwa ungabwezedwe. Komabe, ngati mlanduwo unachititsidwa ndi kulakwa kwa loya kochitidwa ndi cholinga cha kusuliza woimbidwa mlandu, khoti lingaike njira yoweruziranso pansi pa “kukwiyitsidwa kwadala” muyezo wa [[FLT: 0] Oregon v. Kennedy [[FL:1] (1982]

Umboni Wochepa Wokhudza Zinthu Zimene Zinkachitika M’mbuyomu: Zimene Zingathandize

Ngakhale pamene ngozi ziŵiri sizimaletsa kumangidwa, malamulo owonekera bwino angachepetse zimene zingayambitsidwe. Malamulo a Umboni (ndi malamulo a boma) amakhazikitsa malire. Lamulo 404(b) kaŵirikaŵiri limaletsa umboni wa maupandu ena, zolakwa, kapena machitidwe otsimikizira khalidwe kapena upandu. Umboni wotero ungakhale woyenerera kaamba ka zolinga zina, mwaŵi, cholinga, kukonzekera, chidziŵitso, kusadziŵa, kapena kusapezekapo kwa. Ngati mlandu usanachitike umakhudza khalidwe limene limagwirizana ndi limodzi la zimenezi, umboni ungabwere mu / Khotilo liyenera kupima phindu lake lotsutsana ndi tsankho lopanda tsankho pansi pa 403.

Kuwonjezerapo, malamulo omveka oletsa kugwiritsira ntchito umboni kuchokera ku kuzenga mlandu kusanachitike. Ngati mboni imene inachitira umboni mlandu woyamba ipezeka kwachiŵiri, umboni woyambirira ungakhale wopezeka pansi pa kusiyanitsa kwa makutu kwa umboni wakale (Rule 804(b)(1) , woperekedwa woimbidwa mlanduwo anali ndi mwaŵi ndi cholinga chofanana ndi cha kudutsa umboni m'mbuyomo. Zimenezi kaŵirikaŵiri zimabuka pambuyo potsutsa chitsimikizo.

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti Lonse Ikupotoza Malamulo

Dixon (1990) ndi United States

M’nkhani yochititsa chidwi imeneyi, Khoti Lalikulu linafotokoza bwino za kuopsa kwa milandu yotsatizana pansi pa malamulo osiyanasiyana. Khotilo linavomereza kuti kuyesa Blockburger ndiko muyezo wokha wogamula ngati milandu iŵiri ili yofanana ndi zolinga ziŵiri za ngozi, kukana “mayendedwe amodzimodziwo” kuchokera ku mlandu woyamba. Chigamulo chimenechi chinachepetsa chitetezo m’mbali zina koma chinapereka chitsogozo chomveka bwino kwa aloya ndi makhoti.

M’mphepete mwa nyanja

M’nkhaniyi, khotilo linanena kuti kuopsa kwa kaŵiri kunaletsa mlandu wachiŵiri wozikidwa pa mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo ngakhale ngati mabungwe alamulo anasiyana. Komabe, chigamulocho sichinakhalitse; zaka zitatu pambuyo pake mu United States v. Dixon, Bwalo lamilandu la Grady ndi kubwereranso ku mayeso a Blockburger. Phunziro nlakuti lamulo m'dera lino lakhala ndi kutsutsanabe.

Ashe v. Sunson (1970)

Mlandu umenewu unatsimikizira kale kuti kupenda koyenera kuletsa kuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito njira yotetezera yoŵirikiza kaŵiri ya Fite Amendment. kumaletsa boma kuyesanso woimbidwa mlandu pa zochitika zimene kwenikweni zinathetsedwa ndi kukana mlanduwo, ngakhale ngati mlandu watsopanowo uli wosiyana ndi wina.

Mabuku Othandiza Otetezera Upandu ndi Kuweruza

Kwa maloya otetezera, kumvetsetsa ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri ndi malamulo olamulira umboni m'mayeso otsatira nkofunika kutetezera makasitomala ku kuzembedwa kopambanitsa. Ngati wowalembayo wamasulidwa, kudzitetezera kuyenera kukhala tcheru ku kuyesayesa kulikonse kwa boma kudzutsa nkhani zofananazo m'nkhani yatsopano. Ngati mlanduwo utha polakwa kapena utagwedezeka pa apilo, uphungu uyenera kupenda mosamalitsa umboni umene ungachotsedwe pansi pa malamulo owopsa kapena malamulo owonekera bwino. Chiphunzitso cha kuletsa kuimitsa kopetsedwa ndi kutseka kwa mfundo zimene zatsimikizirika zogamulidwa kale m’chiyanjo cha woimbidwa kale.

Kwa oweruza, malamulo ameneŵa amafunikira kuweruza mosamalitsa. Kubweretsa milandu yosiyana m'maweruzidwe osiyana omwe amaphwanya kuopsa kwa kaŵiri kungatsogolere ku kuchotsedwa ndi kutayidwa kwa chuma. Kumvetsetsa mayeso a Blockburger ndi chiphunzitso chapadera kumalola oweruza kulinganiza milandu moyenerera. Ndiponso, pogwiritsira ntchito umboni wa kuzenga mlandu, oweruza ayenera kutsimikizira kuti atsatira malamulo oonekera bwino ndi kupeŵa “kutsutsa pa [1] umboni wa khalidwe lopanda mlandu umene ungapereketse tsankhu la a oweruza milandu.

Kumaliza: Kulinganiza Zofunika za Kukondera, Kumaliza Kwake, ndi Kuweruza

Malamulo ozungulira ngozi ziŵiri ndi kugwiritsira ntchito umboni m'mayeso otsatira amasonyeza kulinganizika kowopsa. Pambali imodzi, mawu a ngozi aŵiri amatetezera nzika ku ulamuliro wotsendereza wa boma, kutsimikizira kuti kukhululukidwa kapena chitsimikiziro n’kotheradi. Kumbali ina, kusiyapo, chiphunzitso chalamulo chalamulo, kukonzanso pambuyo pa kulakwa, ndi kugwiritsira ntchito umboni wa kumbuyo kwa chiyeso, ndi kulola boma kulondola chilungamo popanda kulakwa.

Kupereka malo ocholoŵana ameneŵa kumafuna kumvetsetsa kolimba kwa lamulo la malamulo, zitsanzo za Khoti Lapamwamba, ndi malamulo alamulo amene amalamulira umboni. Akatswiri a zamalamulo ayenera kukhalabe ndi mafotokozedwe osintha, pamene makhoti akupitirizabe kulongosola malire a “mlandu umenewo” ndi umboni umene ungabwezeretsedwe. Kwa okondwerera maphunziro aakulu, chuma chochokera ku Cornell Information Institute ndi [FLT:] Conationtition Anuted .

Pomalizira pake, cholinga ndicho kupereka chilungamo moyenerera . Kutetezera woimbidwa mlanduyo ku kuzengedwa mlandu mobwerezabwereza ndi kutsimikizira kuti wolakwayo satha kuyankha mlandu mwa kulephera kwa makolo ake. Chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiri, limodzi ndi malamulo apamwamba okonzedwa bwino, zimatumikira monga maziko a chilungamo cha apandu m’chitaganya cha democracy.