Unansi pakati pa boma la boma ndi mabomawo wakhala chinthu chachikulu chakutsutsana chiyambire kukhazikitsidwa kwa republic ya America. Bill of Rights, wovomerezedwa mu 1791, adamvedwa poyamba kukhala wogwira ntchito kotheratu kwa boma la boma, kugwira ntchito monga chitetezero ku ulamuliro wa dziko. Zimenezi zasiya kusiyana kwakukulu m'chitetezero cha ufulu wa munthu aliyense, popeza kuti maboma a boma angachepetse ufulu wawo popanda kuyang'anizana ndi chipani cha boma. Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Religine chinatuluka kuchokera ku malamulo a malamulo a nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni kuchotsapo nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni kuthetsera mkanganowu. Pambuyo pa zaka za zana la 20, Supreme Court inagwiritsira ntchito mosankha malamulo onse a ufulu ku mabomawo, kukonza malo a United States ndi auchigamulungu. Kumvetsetsa chiphunzitso chimenechi nkofunika kwambiri kaamba ka ufulu wa ufulu wa dziko la United States lerolino

Chiyambi cha Chiphunzitso Chogwirizanitsa

The Antebellum Understanding: Barron v. Baltimore

Kwa theka loyamba la zaka za zana la 19, nkhani yakuti kaya Bill of Rights inagwiritsidwa ntchito ku maboma inathetsedwa ndi chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833). Woweruza wamkulu John Marshall, analemba pa Bwalo la Malamulo la ufulu wachibadwidwe, anatsutsa kuti Bill of Rights inaikidwa kukhala chiletso pa boma. Mlandu wokhudza mwini wa kampani ku Baltimoret amene anasungirira katundu wake popanda kubwezera. Pamene kuli kwakuti Commondrea analetsa kulanda katundu wachinsinsi kuti agwiritse ntchito kwa anthu popanda kulipira, Khoti linagamula kuti lamuloli silinagwirizanitse boma kapena maboma. Chigamuchigamuchi cha boma chinapangidwa chogaŵanitsidwa ndi bomalo, koma chinali chogwirizana ndi ufulu wa kuyendetsa ufulu wa boma, malinga ndi malamulo awo okha.

Kusintha kwa Malamulo a 14 ndi Kusintha kwa Mafuko

Kuikidwa kwa Jeneth Amendment mu 1868 kunali chivomerezo chachindunji ku chisalungamo cha pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Kummwe ndi chiphunzitso [[FLT: 0]. Chisinthiko chinafuna kutetezera akapolo omasulidwa chatsopano ku malamulo a boma laudani. Gawo loyamba la kukonza liri ndi ziganizo zazikulu zingapo, koma ziŵiri ziri mbali yaikulu ku Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation:

  • Ufulu kapena Immunituti Claus: "Sipadzakhala lamulo lililonse limene lidzatsekereza kapena kusungitsa kutsekereza mwaŵi kapena akatemera a nzika za United States.
  • Makonzedwe Oyenera Claus:[[FLT ...1] "Ndipo Boma lirilonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda dongosolo loyenerera la lamulo.

Poyamba, kunakhulupiriridwa kuti Malo Oikidwiratu kapena ma Immunitunia Claus ikakhala galimoto yoyamba yogwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku maboma. Komabe, m'Chilango cha Nyumba Cases [Nyumba [1] [185] [18.1], Bwalo Lapamwamba linachepetsa kwambiri ukulu wa chigamulo chimenechi, kutanthauza kuti chinatetezera kokha ufulu wochepa wotengedwa ku unzika, wonga kuyenera kwa kupempha Congress kapena kulowa m'madoko. Zimenezi zinaŵerenga bwino mfundo za Incoultporation Doctive Resocial kwa zaka zoposa zana limodzi. Monga chotulukapo, khotilo linatembenukira ku lamulo la Crome monga magwero a ufulu wa kutetezera ufulu wa boma.

Chisinthiko cha Chisinthiko: Kuchokera ku Ufulu Wachibadwidwe Kukusankha

Ufulu Wofunika Kwambiri Uyamba Kupezeka

Chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20, khoti linayamba kuyambitsa mayeso alamulo a kugwiritsa ntchito Bill of Rights ku maboma. Triniting v. New Jersey (1908]), khoti linakhazikitsa "Ufulu wa maganizo". Nkhaniyo sinali yakuti kaya makonzedwe a Boma la ufulu waufulu anaswedwa, koma ngati boma linaswa kumanja kwapadera kwakuti linali "kulo m’chigamulo cha ufulu wolamulidwa. Zimenezi zinapereka kugamula kwapadera kwa Khoti kuti lisankhe ndi kusankha zoyenera zoyenerera kutetezedwa ndi boma.

Palko v. Connecticut ndi "Li paufulu"

Jasitisi Benjamin Cardozo anakhazikitsa njira yosankha imeneyi m'nkhani yotchuka ya Palko v. Connecticut . (1937). Frank Palka anazengedwa mlandu wakupha, kuimbidwa mlandu wa kusudzula, ndi kupatsidwa chilango cha moyo. Boma la Connecticut linachonderera mlandu ndi kupambana mlandu watsopano, kumene Palka anaimbidwa mlandu wa kupha ndi kuweruzidwa ku imfa. Palka adanena kuti mlandu wachiŵiri unaswa kutetezeredwa ku ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri. Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula mlandu wogamula. Cardozozo analingalira kuti kulakwa koŵirikiza kaŵiri sikunali "chikole cha chiweruzo chochokera m’malemba ndi chikumbumtima cha anthu athu monga ngati lamulo lomveka. Khotilo linakhazikitsa ufulu wokhalo kuti likhale loyenerera ku "unika" kuyenera kutsegulira ufulu wotsegulira chitseko. Koma osatse.

Chilungamo Black's Chitsutso Chonse

Woweruza Hugo Black anali wosuliza wotchuka kwambiri wa njira yosankha. M’mbali zonse za khotilo, iye anatsutsa kuti Kusintha kwa 14 kunali kolinganizidwa kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku maiko. "Zonse" chiphunzitso chake chinanena kuti Chikalata cha Malamulo cha Malamulo a 145 chinaphatikiza chitetezo chilichonse cha mamendu a asanu ndi atatu oyambirira. Akuda anakhulupirira kuti "Ufulu wapamwamba" kuyesa kunapatsa mphamvu zambiri zomvera ndi kuti umboni wa mbiri uchirikizidwa ndi kuti udalipo kuwonjezera kuwonjezera. Pamene kuli kwakuti Chilungamo cha Black sanapata chochuluka kaamba ka chiphunzitso chake chonse, kutsutsana kwake kwamphamvu konga [FLD:0] Adamuson v. California [1] (1947) anasonkhezera kuyang'anira mlandu womakula wa ku Khirigalamu ya zaka makumi khumi a zaka khumi a I.

Bwalo la Warren ndi Kusintha kwa Zigaŵenga

Chisankho cha Justice Earl Warren mu 1953 chinasonyeza kusintha kwa kugwedezeka kwa dziko m'Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation . Bwalo la Warren linalandira lingaliro lofala la ufulu wa munthu ndipo linasintha kwambiri unansi pakati pa madongosolo a boma a milandu ndi Konsichushoni. M'zigamulo zotsatizana zachiweruzo mkati mwa ma 1960, khoti linaphatikiza pafupifupi zonse za njira zaupandu zotetezera za Bill of Rights. Nthaŵi imeneyi imatchedwa "kusintha kwa malamulo a boma a apolisi, makhoti, ndi ndende, kutsimikizira kuti malamulo aakulu a boma akugwira ntchito mosasamala kanthu za zimene munthu anakhalako.

Buku la Ufulu Woyenerera Linapita ku United States: Kufufuza Koyenera

Njira yophatikiza si chochitika chimodzi koma kukula kwa mutu ndi mlandu pang’onopang’ono. Pansipa pali kunyonyotsoka kwa mmene Khoti Lalikulu lagwiritsira ntchito makonzedwe aakulu alionse a Bill of Rights ku maboma.

Kusintha Koyamba: Kulankhula, Kusindikiza, Msonkhano, ndi Chipembedzo

Chisinthiko Choyamba chinali malire oyamba aakulu a kuloŵetsedwa. Getlow v. New York (1925), Bwalo lamilandu linavomereza kuti ufulu wa kulankhula unali kuyenera koyambirira kotetezeredwa ku boma la mamembala. [FLT:] Networbourg v. [FL:] Minnesota [[FL:3] [193]] [193] chinjirizo ku ufulu wa osindikiza, kuswa lamulo limene linalola kuletsa manyuzipepala poyamba. [FL:] [FL:] Donge]. [vFLT: 5.] (1937]) inawonjezera chitetezero chakumanja cha mtendere, ndi [FT:] kuwonjezera [vFT]. [FFOLT]

Kusintha kwachiŵiri: Ufulu Wosunga ndi Kunyamula Zida

Gawo Lachiŵiri Lakutikonza linali limodzi la makonzedwe omalizira a Bill of Rights kuti agwiritsiridwe ntchito. Kwa mbali yaikulu ya zaka za zana la 20, Khoti Lapamwamba linakana kugwiritsira ntchito Second Amendment ku maboma. United States v. Cruikshank[[FL:1] [1876] ndi [[FLT:] [FLT] [pa] [pa] [pa] [pa] mlingo wa] , Suppendi [Illinome] [[FL] [FL] [12] v. [FL] [FL:] [FFF:] [5] [18] [18] [imodzi] [imodzi]))) mu mpulu ya chigamu cha chigamu cha chiwiro cha chiwitso cha chika, chimene chilomo cha chika ku chigamu cha chilomo cha munthu mmodzi chakumanja chakumanja chakumanja, Consueto: [Flation: [Flation] [10]

Kusintha kwachinayi: Kufunafuna ndi Kuchotsa ndi Ulamuliro

Chisinthiko chachinayi chimateteza ku kufufuza kosayenera ndi kugwidwa ndi matenda ndipo chimafunikira zilolezo zofunikira kuchirikizidwa ndi chochititsa. Njira yoloŵera kukonza kumeneku inali yaitali ndi yovuta. Mu Wolf v. Colorado[ (1949), Khoti linasunga kuti ufulu wa pakati wa kumasuka ku kufunafuna kosadzifunira unali wofunika, koma linakana kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo loletsa kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'bwalo. Mapu anamangidwa ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito molakwika. Zimenezi zinapanga ntchito kumene kumakhalako kwabwino koma kukana kuloledwa ku boma. Khoti linasintha njira yapatulapo [FL:] njira yapadera mu [FL: MM]. [F.] Maptionslayero a Mapu a kumbuyo kwa ntchito yofufuza yolakwa. Mapulunji apolisiwo adapanganso ntchito yofufuza m'Chigawa chakumbuyo, chigamu cha Chigamu cha Chigamu cha Chigamu cha Chigamu cha Chigamu cha Chigawa chaku, chigamu cha Chigawa chaku

Kusintha kwachisanu: Kudzivulaza, Kudziika Paupandu, ndi Kutenga Zolakwa

Makonzedwe aakulu a Kusintha kwa Fite anaphatikizidwa panthaŵi zosiyanasiyana. Kutenga Aakesi a Claus ("no]]) (kudzatengedwa kwaumwini kaamba ka kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa anthu, popanda malipiro") kunaphatikizidwa monga [[FLT: 0] Chichaga, Burlington & Lamp; Chintang Railroup v. Chicago [[[FLT:] [196]] [1897]], kusonyeza nkhaŵa ya Khoti ndi ufulu wa katundu. Chitetezero cha ku ngozi zoŵirikizana chinaloŵetsedwa mu [[FLT:] Benton v. Mary [1] [FLT] [FLT] [6] [6] [6])] [magalamuliridwa ndi chigamu cha chigamu cha chigamulo cha chinza cha chigamunima chinza cha chinza cha chinza. Chigamulo chinafunanso chigamu cha chigawa cha chigawa cha chinza cha chinza cha . Chotchedwa Concticticticlic.

Lamulo la Chisanu ndi Chimodzi: Ufulu Woyenera Woweruza

Mpando wa Sikisi Ukutsimikizira ufulu wolinganiza mlandu wachilungamo. Zimenezi zimaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa mlandu wa mwamsanga ndi wa anthu, juli yopanda tsankho, kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni, njira yokakamiza kupezera mboni, ndi kuyenera kwa lamulo. Ufulu umenewu unaphatikizidwa makamaka m'nthaŵi ya Warren Court. [FLT: 0]] Gedeon v. Wainr [[FL:] [FLT] [1963] ndi ufulu wopereka umboni waukulu, kuphatikizapo ufulu wa kuyenera kwa kupatsidwa uphungu, ndi kuvomereza kuti kuyenera kwa kuyenera kwa maulamulirowo, kutsimikizira oimbidwa mlandu m'nkhani za . [FFFOLT]. [FFON]

Kusintha kwa Malamulo Kwachisanu ndi Chisanu: Nkhanza ndi Chilango Chachilendo

Chiletso cha Eleh Amendment chinaikidwa m'chiletso chankhanza ndi chachilendo Robinson . California [1] (1962). Khoti la California linaswa lamulo la California limene linapangitsa kukhala chiletso cha kumwerekera ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo, kupangitsa boma kukhala losalanga munthu chifukwa cha malo kapena mkhalidwe, potsutsana ndi kachitidwe kena. Imeneyi inali nthaŵi yoyamba Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito Sex Hend Repured ku maboma, kutsegula khomo kaamba ka kutsutsana kwamakono kwa chilango cha imfa ndi mikhalidwe ya ndende, kuphatikizapo chiletso cha malilo ndi zabwino.

Chiyambukiro cha Kugwirizana pa Chilungamo cha Boma cha Chiweruziro cha Upandu

Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Doctive chinakhala ndi chiyambukiro chake chachikulu kwambiri pa madongosolo a boma a milandu. Maboma asanakhale 1960, anali ndi ufulu waukulu woyang'anira mabwalo awo, madipatimenti apolisi, ndi ndende zimene anaona kuti n’zoyenera. Kusankha machenjezo a Lachinayi, Lachisanu, Lachisanu ndi Lachisanu ndi Lachisanu, ndi Lachisanu ndi Lachisanu ndi Lachisanu Lachisanu Lachisungitsogozo za boma zoikidwa ndi malamulo alamulo a boma pa madongosolo ameneŵa. Mabungwe apolisi a boma anafunikira kukhazikitsa njira zopezera zikalata zovomerezera milandu yowopsa, ndi kuchotsamo umboni wosavomerezeka. Kusintha kwa njira imeneyi ya upandu m'dziko lonselo kunali chimodzi cha ku America, kuyang'anira kwapadera kwa milandu, kwa milandu yonse ya milandu.

Kutsutsana ndi Kusuliza kwa Patsogolo

Kuyamba Ukhanda ndi Mwayi Kapena Kuloŵa M’malo Mwaudindo

Mosasamala kanthu za kulandiridwa kwake kofala, Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Chiphunzitso chidakali nkhani ya kutsutsana kwakukulu kwaukatswiri ndi kwachiweruzo. Oweruza ambiri odziŵa za malamulo ndi akatswiri ambiri amatsutsa kuti Khoti Lapamwamba linachita cholakwa mu Nyumba ya Masewera mwa kuchotsa Malo a Malo kapena Kuchirikiza Azachuma. Chiweruzo cha Clarence Thomas wakhala wochirikiza kwambiri pa Khoti Lapamwamba chifukwa cha kugwiritsira ntchito Malo kapena Imtunies Clause, mmalo mwakuti ndilo lotetezera ndi kutetezera kusungidwa kwa nkhondo ya United States, monga galimoto yoyenerera kaamba ka kuloŵeretsedwa. M'kake mu [FLDoct:2] Chitetezo choyambirira. Chilungamo cha Chilungamo cha Chilungamo cha Chilungamo cha Chilungamo cha Chiku

Chiphunzitso Chotsutsa Lamulo

Kusuliza kopitirizabe kwa kuloŵetsamo ndiko kuti kumaluluza lamulo la boma. Ochirikiza ulamuliro wa boma amatsutsa kuti boma la boma, kupyolera mwa makhoti, limalamulira bwino boma ndi maulamuliro kukhazikitsa malamulo ena. "Anti-direering" lamulo, lofotokozedwa m'nkhani zonga ngati . United States [FLT] [1997] [1997] ndi New York v. United States . [FLT:] [3], imaletsa mphamvu ya boma kukhazikitsa kapena kuyendetsa kapena kuyendetsa maprogramu a boma. Komabe, makhoti akuona kuti malamulo a ufulu a boma ndi osiyana ndi lamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti lamulo la boma la boma la boma silingakhoze kuletsa lamulo lolamulira lolamulira lamulo lolamulira lamulo lolamulira lamulo lamakono.

Kusintha kwa Zinthu

Kusintha kwa kuphatikiza kuli chiphunzitso chogwirizana ndi chimene Chisinthiko cha 144 chikugwiritsiridwa ntchito kugwiritsira ntchito zoyenera kuchokera ku Bill of Rights kubwerera ku boma la boma. Chitsanzo chotchuka kwambiri ndicho [[FLT: 0] Bolling v. Trorde (154]), nkhani ya [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] inagwetsa boma-ofransinsinsinsi pansi pa Desiki la 145 Demendment [FGrandment]] v. [FLT]] Bolting [FF:] [[FLT] [[FL:4] [BLT] [BL] [iku] adamenyana ndi boma lokhala ngati ndi chitetezero cha Clation [INUT] chofanana ndi chotetezera chokwanira cha Malamulo a Generalas Revicestion [F] [FF] [FM] [F] [F] [F] [7] [7] m'sting Refective Reformtiontiontiontion]).

Tsogolo la Kudetsedwa

Chikalata cha Incorporation Doctrine si nkhani yothetsedwa m'mbiri koma mbali yogwira ntchito ya lamulo lovomerezeka. Palibe makonzedwe a Bill of Rights amene sanagwirizanitsidwe mokwanira. Mwachitsanzo, chitetezo cha Third Amendment printer sati chaphatikizidwa mwachindunji ndi bwalo la Supreme Court, ngakhale kuti chikulingaliridwa mofala kuti chigwiritsiridwe ntchito. Chofunika cha General Confter cha bungwe la aget pa milandu yaikulu chasungidwa kusagwira ntchito ku maboma mu [FLT:] . California[FLT:] v. [FLD:] [181]] [184], ndipo chitsanzo chimenechi chimakhalabe lamulo labwino. Lachiŵiri limakhalabe lowopsa, ndi mabwalo amilandu ogwedetsa ndi ukulu wa [FLT] mu [FFF] ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kwa lamulo lachimonse logwirizana ndi kuyeretsa kwa ufulu walamulo lachilamulo lachilamulo lachimerezo lachi.

Kumaliza

Chiphunzitso cha Kusintha kwa Malamulo chimaimira chimodzi cha ziwonjezeko zapadera kwambiri m'mbiri ya Amereka. Mwa kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku maboma kupyolera mwa Geneth Amendment, Bwalo Lapamwamba linasintha mkhalidwe wa ulamuliro wa America ndi chitetezo cha munthu aliyense. Kuchokera ku zigamulo za maziko a Warren Court ku kutsutsana kwamakono pa Kusintha kwachiŵiri ndi njira yaupandu, kuphatikiza ufulu waukulu kwa maulamuliro kwasintha kulinganizika kwa mphamvu pakati pa maboma ndi boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti makambitsirano a tanthauzo loyambirira, chigwirizano cha ufulu, ndi kuweruza akupitirizabe, lamulo la chiphunzitsocho likukhalabe lomveka: ufulu wotsimikiziridwa ndi malamulo a m’dziko lonse, mosasamala kanthu ndi boma limene amaitanira kunyumba yawo.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa chisinthiko cha chiphunzitso chimenechi, [[FLT: 0] [[FLT :1] . . . LT] Institute yodziŵikitsa pa Cornell Law School imapereka kufupi kwabwino kwambiri. Zosankha zazikulu zonga [[FLT]] Getlow v. New York pa Oyez [1] ndi kuphatikizidwa kwa Masinthidwe Achiŵiri mu McDonald v. Chicago Chig.[FLT:]