Kuyamba Kutsatira Lamulo la Mayeso Aŵiri

Lamulo langozi ziŵiri liri limodzi la machinjirizo aakulu koposa m'lamulo la Amereka laupandu, kutetezera anthu ku mphamvu ya boma kuwazengezera mobwerezabwereza chifukwa cha kusamvera konenedwa. Chitetezo cha lamulo chimenechi, chozikidwa pa Fifete Amendment , chimasonyeza chitsimikizo chachikulu cha kumaliza m'malamulo ndi kutetezera boma kwa ozengedwa. Kwa oweruza, ophunzira alamulo, ndi aliyense woyendetsa dongosolo la upandu wa boma, kumvetsetsa mmene lamuloli limagwirira ntchito m'malamulo a boma ndi malamulo a boma nkofunika.

Lamulolo limaletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chachikulu kufooketsa woimbidwa mlandu mwa kuweruza kotsatizana, ndipo limatsimikizira kuti kukhululukidwa ndi zikhululukiro kuli ndi mphamvu yomalizira. Popanda chitetezo chimenechi, anthu angayang'anizane ndi ngozi yosatha ya lamulo kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kamodzi, kululuza kulungamitsa ndi kuyendetsa bwino kwachiweruzo. Malamulo ndi malamulo amawonjezera mipambo ya kucholoŵana kwa malo alamulo osinthasintha alamulo ameneŵa, kuyambitsa mafunso onena za chimene chimapanga "kulakwa limodzimodzilo" ndi pamene chilango chambiri chingaperekedwe popanda kuswa chitetezo cha malamulo.

Nkhaniyi ikupereka kupenda kokwanira kwa lamulo la ngozi ziŵiri pamene limagwira ntchito ku malamulo a boma, kupenda maziko ake alamulo, kupima kwa lamulo, zigamulo zapadera za Bwalo Lamilandu Lalikulu, zotulukapo zothandiza kwa akatswiri a zamalamulo, ndi kusiyanitsa kowopsya kumene kumapanga kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwake m’zochita za boma zamakono.

Chiyambi cha Malamulo ndi Kupita Patsogolo kwa Mbiri

Chiganizo cha kuopsa kwa kaŵiri cha Demetrimeyi cha Gawo 5 chimapereka kuti palibe munthu amene ayenera "kukhala wogonjera ku chikole chimodzimodzi kuti aikidwe ku ngozi ya moyo kapena kudwala. Chinenerochi, chotengedwa monga mbali ya Bill of Rights mu 1791, chinkatengedwa pa miyambo ya ku England yomwe inakhala yoteteza anthu kwa milandu yambiri. Lamulolo likusonyeza mizu yake ku malamulo a Roma ndi ziphunzitso zoyambirira za Angelezi, kuphatikizapo mapempho a [[FLT: 0] a frais revolution [ (yake yopasulidwa) ndi oweruza milandu yochuluka.

Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala likulongosola mosalekeza mawu a ngozi zoŵirikiza monga kugwiritsa ntchito zifuno zitatu zofunika: limatetezera mlandu wachiŵiri pa mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa, kuzengedwa mlandu wachiŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa chitsimikizo, ndi kulangidwa kwa ziweruzo zambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Zitetezero zimenezi zimagwira ntchito ponse paŵiri pa milandu ya boma ndi boma, monga Bwalo Lapamwamba losungidwa mu Benton v. Maryland . [69] [69]

M'mbiri, mawuwo anatembenuzidwa mochepera, kusumika maganizo pa milandu ya imfa ndi milandu yowopsa. Komabe, mkupita kwanthaŵi khotilo linafutukula ukulu wake ku kuphatikizapo olakwa, milandu ya ana, ndi milandu ina yachiŵeniŵeni imene imakakamiza chilango. Chisinthiko chimenechi chimasonyeza kuzindikira kwakukulu kuti malamulo otetezera owonjezereka amakhudza kutetezera amagwira ntchito ngati boma lifuna kupereka chilango chaupandu, mosasamala kanthu za dzina loikidwa pa zochitikazo.

Kukula kwa mbiri ya lamulo la ngozi ziŵiri kumavumbulanso kusagwirizana kosalekeza pakati pa chikondwerero cha munthu m'kumaliza ndi chikondwerero cha boma cha kuweruza upandu mogwira mtima. Makhoti alimbana ndi kulongosola nthaŵi yeniyeni pamene "kudzipha," amasankha chimene chikupanga "chimo limodzi" kaamba ka zifuno za ngozi ziŵiri, ndi mikhalidwe imene kuweruza kochulukira kumaloledwa mosasamala kanthu za malamulo.

Pamene Zomangira Zopachikidwa m’Mapindu a Federal

Mlandu wotsekereza m’kusanthula ngozi kulikonse kwa kaŵiri ukutsimikizira pamene ngozi imagwirizanadi ndi ndandanda ya boma. Yankholo limadalira pa mtundu wa kuloŵetsedwamo, ndipo Bwalo Lapamwamba lakhazikitsa malamulo omvekera bwino kaamba ka nkhani zosiyanasiyana.

Mayeso a Jury

M'milandu ya ajuli ya boma, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene ajuli aikidwa ndi kulumbira. Izi zikutanthauza kuti oweruza atasankhidwa, kulumbira kuti adzazenga mlanduwo, ndipo mlanduwo wayamba, woimbidwa mlanduyo amaikidwa pangozi. Ngati wa Mboniyo ayamba kutsutsa mlanduwo kapena ngati mlandu waperekedwa popanda chilolezo cha woimbidwa mlanduyo, kuzenga mlandu kotsatirako kungaletsedwe.

Mayeso a Benkch

M’maweruzidwe a boma, pamene mlanduwo umazengedwa pamaso pa woweruza yekha, ngozi imaikidwa pamene umboni woyamba walumbira.

Kukondwera ndi Liwongo

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu aloŵa m’khoti la boma loimba mlandu, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa ndi nthaŵiyo pamene khoti livomereza pempholo ndi kuweruza. Pempho la liwongo limapanga chitsimikiziro kaamba ka zifuno za ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, ndipo woimbidwa mlanduyo pambuyo pake sangaimbidwe mlandu kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo, ngakhale ngati pempholo pambuyo pake lachotsedwa m’mikhalidwe ina.

Ntchito ya Uyang’aniro ndi Ntchito Zachiŵeniŵeni

Nkhani ya pamene ngozi ikugwirizana ndi nkhani za boma njakuvuta kwambiri. Khoti Lalikulu lagamula kuti chigamulo cha ngozi ziŵiri chimagwira ntchito pa milandu ya boma imene ili ya chilango cha m’chilengedwe. United States v. Halper (19989), Khoti linazindikira kuti chilango cha boma chingakhale chilango cha zigamulo ziŵiri ngati chikhala chobwezera ndi kuletsa zinthu m’dzikolo mmalo mwa kulipindulira. Komabe, chigamulo chotsatira mu . United States [FLT:] [1997] [1997]) linapeza chiŵeruzo chimenechi, kukhazikitsa mayeso osiyanasiyana kuti atsimikizire ngati chilo cha lamulo lachiŵeruzo chachikulu.

Kufufuza ndi Kuyesa Malo Otsekemera

Mwinamwake nkhani yongotsutsidwa kaŵirikaŵiri m'malamulo a boma ya kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri ndi yakuti kaya milandu iŵiri ili "mlandu umodzi" kaamba ka zifuno za lamulo. Khoti Lapamwamba linayankha funso limeneli m'nkhani yotchuka ya tamburger v. United States [1] (1932]), kukhazikitsa "zinthu ziŵiri" zimene zimakhalabe maziko a kupenda kwamakono.

Pansi pa mayeso a magetsi , milandu iŵiri imalingaliridwa kukhala yosiyana pa zifuno zoŵirikaŵiri ngati iriyonse ifuna umboni wa chinthu chimene wina sakufuna. Ngati milanduyo italongosoledwa kuti wina ali ndi mlandu waung'ono wa wina, iwo ali mlandu umodzimodzi, ndipo kuweruza kopatukana kapena chilango kumaletsedwa. Mwachitsanzo, ngati lamulo la boma limaletsa kugulitsa zinthu zoletsedwa ndi kukhala ndi zinthu zoletsedwa zogaŵirikiza ndi kugawidwa, khoti likapenda ngati mlandu uliwonse uli ndi mbali yapadera ya kulakwalo.

Kugwiritsira Ntchito Malamulo a Malamulo a Boma

Malamulo aupandu kaŵirikaŵiri amamasulira milandu yambiri mkati mwa chiwembu chimodzi cha lamulo, kuyambitsa mafunso ovuta ponena za kaya Nyumba ya Malamulo ikufuna kuvomereza chilango chowonjezera. Kuyesa [[FLT:] kumagwira ntchito monga lamulo la kumanga kogwirizana m'nkhani ino: makhoti amalingalira kuti Nyumba za Malamulo sizinafune kuvomereza chilango zambiri kaamba ka khalidwe limodzimodzilo ngati zolakwazo zilidi zosiyana pansi pa sitburger .

Talingalirani kuzembetsa mankhwala kwa boma. Woimbidwa mlandu angayang'anizane ndi mlandu wa chiwembu cha kugawira zinthu zolamuliridwa (1 U.S.C. . 841) ndi kugaŵidwa kwa zinthu zolamulidwa (21 U.S.C. . . 8411). Pansi pa , chiwembu chimafunikira chitsimikizo cha chigamulo, pamene mlandu waung'ono sufuna umboni weniweni wa kufalitsa, umene zunguliridwako sikuli. Chifukwa chakuti mlandu uliwonse umafuna umboni wa mbali inayo yosatero, iwo ali milandu yopatutsa zifukwa ziŵiri, ndi kutsutsa kapena kuchititsa chilango kopatulana.

Dixon

Chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba mu [[FLT: 0] United States v. Dixon[FLT :1] (1993) adayankha funso lofunika ponena za ngati chitetezo cha ngozi ziŵiri chimafika kumbuyo kwa . . . . . . Khoti linalingalira ngati kulakwa koŵirikiza kuletsa kuweruza kwa mchitidwe wozikidwa pa khalidwe limene linachititsa kale kugamulidwa ndi lamulo losiyana. [[FLT: 4.] Dixon [1]

Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti kuyesa , osati kufutukula "kuyesa kwa khalidwe", kumatsogolera kupenda ngozi kaŵiri. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti ngakhale ngati khalidwe limodzimodzilo likupanga maziko a milandu iŵiri, milanduyo siifanana kwenikweni ngati iwo akhutiritsa [[FLT:] [1] [1] thanber [FLT :3] ya mayeso. Dixon[FF:5] chigamu cha pakati pa chigamulo chinatsimikiziranso chigamu cha pakati pa [[FLT:] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Kugwiritsira Ntchito Majepa Aŵiri m’Malemba a Federal

Malamulo a boma amayambitsa mavuto apadera chifukwa mabungwe a boma angapereke ziletso zimene zingaoneke ngati chilango cha upandu.

Ntchito Zaudindo ndi Zabwino za Pachiweniweni

Mabungwe a boma monga Secureties ndi Exchange Commission, Environmental Protection Agency, ndi Occupational Safety and Health Administration nthaŵi zonse amakhazikitsa chilango cha ndalama kaamba ka kuswa malamulo awo. Funso la kaya ngati chilango chimenechi chikhala chilango cha kuopsa kwa maupandu oŵirikiza kaŵiri limadalira pa mkhalidwe wawo ndi cholinga. Ngati chilangocho chilinganizidwira kubwezera boma kapena magulu oyambukiridwa ndi kutaikiridwa kwenikweni, chingakhale chachikhalidwe chachikhalidwe ndipo sichingakhale chiletso chowopsa kaŵiri. Komabe, ngati chilangocho chingakhale cholinganizidwa kubwezera kapena kuletsa, chingakhale chilango chaupandu.

Kupempha Mlandu ndi Kuyeretsa kwa Akatswiri

Malo ocholoŵana kwambiri amaphatikizapo kuchotsedwa kwa laisensi yaukatswiri kapena kulola kutsatira zikhulupiriro zaupandu. Mabungwe a boma ndi mabungwe a boma kaŵirikaŵiri ali ndi ulamuliro wa kuchotsa kapena kuchotsa malaisensi ozikidwa pa mkhalidwe wofananawo umene unabutsa upandu. Khoti Lapamwamba lakhala ndi lingaliro lakuti ziletso zauyang'anira zimenezo sizimawononga ngozi ziŵiri chifukwa chakuti iwo ali opalamula mmalo mwa kubwezera chilango m’chilengedwe. Mwachitsanzo, dokotala wopezedwa ndi chinyengo cha Medicarelare angayang'ane ndi chilango cha upandu ndi kutayikiridwa kwa ntchito yothandizira ntchito yaumoyo ya boma popanda kuswa zitetezero zowopsa ziŵiri.

Kupitirizabe kwa Malonda

Malamulo a boma otayidwa akupereka nkhani ina yaikulu ya ngozi. Boma lingafune kulandidwa katundu wogwiritsiridwa ntchito kapena wotengedwa ku ntchito yaupandu m'kuyendetsa boma kwapadera, ngakhale pambuyo pa kumangidwa kwa upandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula nkhani imeneyi mu United States v. Ursery (1996] , kusunga kutayikiridwa kwa katundu kwa boma kaŵirikaŵiri sikupanga chilango kaamba ka zifuno zowopsa zoŵiri, malinga ngati iwo atumikira chifuno chothetsera kuchotsa ziŵindi ndi kutuluka kwa upandu.

Chiphunzitso cha Dual Coust Doctrine ndi Kuzenga mlandu kwa M’chigawo cha Federal

Chimodzi cha zinthu zazikulu koposa ku lamulo langozi la kaŵiri ndicho chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri, chimene chimalola maboma a boma ndi a boma onse aŵiri kuweruza munthu kaamba ka mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo popanda kuswa Lamulo Lachisanu Lowonjezera. chiphunzitso chimenechi chimavomereza kuti boma la boma ndi boma lirilonse ndilo odziimira paokha, aliyense ndi zifuno zake m’kukhazikitsa malamulo ake apadera.

Chiyambi ndi Kusintha kwa Chiphunzitsocho

Khoti Lalikulu linakhazikitsa chiphunzitso cha uchifumu waŵiri mu United States v. Lanza [1] (1922) ndipo laibwerezanso kuyambira pamenepo. Lingali ndi lingaliro lakuti pamene kachitidwe kamodzi kaswekera lamulo la boma ndi la boma, milandu iŵiri yosiyana yachitidwa — imodzi yotsutsana ndi boma ndi imodzi yotsutsana ndi boma. Chifukwa chakuti mabwalo aŵiriwo abweretsedwa ndi maulamuliro osiyana, chigamulo cha ngozi yaŵiri sichimaletsa mlandu wachiŵiri.

Zolephera ndi Zosafunika

Chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri si chotheratu. Makhoti azindikira kuti ngati wolamulira mmodzi ali chiŵiya kapena nthumwi ya winayo, ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiriwo umagwa. Mwachitsanzo, ngati oweruza a boma alamulira mokhutiritsa kuweruza kwa boma, kuzenga mlandu kotsatirapo kungaletsedwe. Kuwonjezerapo, malamulo ena a boma amaletsa kuweruza boma mwachindunji pambuyo pa kachitidwe ka boma kapena kutsutsana ndi wina, kupanga zitetezero zowopsa ziŵiri zimene zimaposa pamlingo wa malamulo alamulo.

Mafunsidwe Othandiza a Chizoloŵezi cha Maseŵera

Chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa aŵiri chimakhudza kwambiri kutetezera kwa boma. Woimbidwa mlandu wakupha boma angayang'anizanebe ndi milandu ya upandu ya boma yozikidwa pa khalidwe limodzimodzilo, monga momwe zasonyezedwera m'chiweruzo chapamwamba cha apolisi ophatikizidwa m'kumenya Mfumu Rodney. Mofananamo, milandu ya mankhwala ya boma kaŵirikaŵiri imatsatira kuzengedwa mlandu kwa boma kaamba ka malonda a mankhwala amtundu upandu umodzimodziwo. Otetezera ayenera kudziŵa za kuthekera kumeneku ndi kulingalira za kukhudzidwa kwa kukambitsirana kwa mayeso, njira yozetsa milandu, ndi kugawiridwa kwa chuma pakati pa milandu iŵiri.

Collateral Estopel ndi Nkhani Zodzitsekera m’Magulu Olimbana ndi Maboma

Kupyola pa ngozi yachindunji ya kaŵiri yochinjiriza ku masuti otsatizana, Firstment imaphatikizaponso lamulo la kutsimikizira kuti ilekeratu kuchitidwa. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chimaletsa boma kugamula mlandu pambuyo pake mfundo iliyonse kapena nkhani imene inagamulidwa m’chiyanjo cha woimbidwa mlanduyo asanachite zimenezo.

Malo Otchedwa Ashe v. Sunson Framework

Khoti Lapamwamba linazindikira kuyang'anira kopeterala ya ngozi ziŵiri mu Ashe v. Sunson [1] (1970). M’nkhani imeneyo, woimbidwa mlandu anazengedwa mlandu wakuba mmodzi wa oseŵera asanu ndi mmodzi a poker ndi kumasulidwa ndi umboni wosakwanira. Pamene boma linayesa kulanda woseŵera wina pa chochitika chimodzimodzicho, Khotilo linagamula kuti chigamulo cha oweruza oyamba chinali chotsimikiza kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo sanali mmodzi wa achifwamba, kutsutsa mlandu wachiŵiri.

M’zochita za boma, kupenda estol kumagwira ntchito pamene: (1) nkhani ya mlandu wachiŵiri njofanana ndi nkhani imene inagamulidwa m’nkhani yoyamba; (2) nkhaniyo inadzudzulidwadi; (3) nkhaniyo inagamulidwa mwachidziŵikire ndi chigamulo choyambirira; ndipo (4) gulu limene linkatsutsidwa kuti lileke kutero linali ndi mpata wokwanira wofotokoza nkhaniyo m’chiyambi cha zochitika.

Kufunsira Kuzenga Ndalama Zambiri

Colteracal estopal imabuka kaŵirikaŵiri m'milandu ya boma yaunyinji pamene oweruza amabwezera chigamulo chosanganizidwa, kuvomereza pa milandu ina ndi kuweruza ena. Ngati kukanidwako kunagamula nkhani yeniyeni imene iri yofunikanso kuŵerengera kumene oweruzawo anapangika, boma lingaletsedwe kuletsa kuŵerengera kumeneko. Makhoti a Boma akusanthula mosamalitsa chigamulo cha oweruzawo kuti atsimikizire nkhani zimene zinathetsedwa ndi womasula, njira imene ingakhale yovuta makamaka pamene oweruzawo sanapereke zopezedwa.

Zofunika ndi Zolephera Kuteteza Kaŵiri Ululu

Lamulo la ngozi ziŵiri, ngakhale kuti ndi lofunika kwambiri, limakhala ndi malamulo angapo ofunika ndi oletsa amene madokotala a boma ayenera kuzindikira. Kupatula kumeneku kumasonyeza kulinganiza kumene makhoti achita pakati pa ufulu wa munthu ndi chikondwerero cha boma pa malamulo ogwira mtima.

Kuthetsa Mavuto

Pamene mlandu utha m'maweruziro olakwa, ngozi ziŵiri zingaletse kapena sizingaletse kuweruzanso mogwirizana ndi chifukwa cha kulakwa. Ngati kuweruza kolakwika kwaperekedwa ndi chivomerezo cha woimbidwa mlandu, kugamulidwanso kumaloledwa. Ngati kuweruza kolakwika kwaperekedwa pa chitsutso cha woimbidwa mlandu, kuweruzidwanso kumatsekedwanso kusiyapo ngati panali "kufunikira kwakukulu" kaamba ka kulakwa. Khoti Lapamwamba lakhulupirira kuti kuli kofunika pamene ajuli achotsedwa kotheratu, pamene woweruzayo alephera, kapena pamene mikhalidwe ina ipangitsa kukhala yosatheka kupitiriza mlanduwo.

Kukopa ndi Kupitiriza kwa Pambuyo pa Msonkhano

Chikalata cha kuopsa kwa kaŵiri sichimaletsa boma kukopa chigamulo cha khoti chimene chimatulukapo kulakwa, ngati apilo silikufuna kuyankha mlandu. Mofananamo, ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo apereka chigamulo ndi kupeza mlandu watsopano, ngozi yoŵirikiza simatsekanso chifukwa chakuti woimbidwa mlanduyo amalingaliridwa kukhala atachotsa chitetezo mwa kufuna kubwezera. Komabe, ngati khotilo lipeza kuti umboniwo sunali wokwanira kuchirikiza chigamulocho, zitsutso zoŵirikiza kaŵiri chifukwa chakuti mankhwalawo ali chiweruzo cha kulakwa.

Kulekanitsa Kusintha Kufanana

Malamulo aupandu kaŵirikaŵiri amamasulira milandu yambiri yozikidwa pa malonda aupandu amodzimodzi. Mwachitsanzo, mbala ya ku banki imodzi ingadzutse milandu ya kuba ku banki (18 U.S.C. 76 2113), kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti mkati mwa upandu wachiwawa (18 U.S.C. 76 924(c), ndi chiwembu (18 U.S.C. 76 371). Pansi pa tamburger mayeso, awa ndi mlandu wosiyana, ndipo boma lingawaiiikire onse mu mlandu umodzi kapena, m’mikhalidwe ina, m'maumboni.

Kusiyana kwakukulu kuli pakati pa kuweruza milandu yambiri m'chiweruzo chimodzi, chimene chimaloledwa, ndi kubweretsa milandu yotsatizana pa milandu imodzimodziyo, imene imaletsedwa ndi ngozi ziŵiri. Ngakhale pamene milandu yotsatizana iloledwa pansi pa sitburger , boma lingaletsedwe ndi malamulo a Resjudata kapena ndi lamulo lakuti boma ligwirizane ndi milandu yonse yodziŵika pansi pa malamulo a Federal Laul of Criminal Procedure 8 (a).

Chizindikiro cha Khoti Lalikulu Chikuswa Lamulo Lachiphamaso Laŵiri

Zigamulo zingapo za Bwalo Lalikulu lamilandu zasonkhezera kwenikweni kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo la ngozi ziŵiri ku malamulo ndi malamulo a boma, kukhazikitsa maziko a kachitidwe kamene makhoti akupitiriza kugwiritsira ntchito lerolino.

Blockburger v. United States (1932)

Monga momwe taonera pamwambapa, tamburger . Khoti linakhazikitsa "zinthu zofananazo" zoyesa zimene zidakali maziko a kupenda ngozi ziŵiri. Mlandu unaphatikizapo woimbidwa mlandu wa kugulitsa zonse ziŵirizo osati m’phukuto la m'zidakale ndi kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza thupi popanda malamulo olembedwa. Khotilo linanena kuti zimenezi zinali milandu yosiyana pansi pa Harrison Narcotics Act chifukwa chakuti chitsimikizo chilichonse chofunikira cha mfundo ina sichinali. Tamburger [1] Siyeso yokha yopereka chilango chotsatira.

United States ndi Dixon (1993)

Mu Dixon , Khoti Lalikulu linatsimikiziranso ukulu wa mlandu woyesa ndi kukana "mayendedwe amodzi" amene makhoti aang'ono adatengera. Mlandu unabuka kuchokera ku ku kunyozedwa kwa apandu kaamba ka khalidwe limene linakhala nkhani ya kuweruza kwaupandu kosiyana. Khotilo linanena kuti kupenda koŵiri kuyenera kuyenera kusumika pa mbali za milandu, osati pakhalidwe lobisika, ndi kuti [FLT:] querburg [[FLT:]]

Mafuta Otchedwa Grady ndi Corbin (1990) ndi Kuzungulira Kwake

Mwachidule, Khoti mu Grady v. Corbin adatenga "mayendedwe ofananawo" kuyesa, kuchititsa ngozi ziŵiri zotsekereza kumangidwa kotsatirapo ngati boma likayenera kutsimikizira mkhalidwe umene wa mlandu umene woimbidwa mlanduyo adaimbidwapo kale. Komabe, zaka zitatu zokha pambuyo pake, Khoti lakulamulira [] [[FLT]] mu [[FLT: 4.] Dixon[FLT:], kubwerera ku .S. .

United States ndi Halper (1989) ndi Hudson v. United States (1997)

Milandu imeneyi inakhazikitsidwa ndipo kenaka kufupikitsa njira yodziŵira pamene zilango za boma zipanga chilango cha ziwopsezo zoŵirikiza. Halper adakhulupirira kuti chilango chachiŵeniŵeni chingakhale chilango ngati chinali "kusasinthika" ku chivulazo chochititsidwa. Hudson [ pa chiweruzo [FLT:] ndi kukhazikitsa kuyesa kowopsa kwa kuyang'ana kaya chiweruzirecho chinachitidwa.

Mafunsidwe Ogwira Ntchito a Opereka Chikalata cha Malamulo

Kwa maloya olondola m’makhoti a boma, kuzindikira masinthidwe a lamulo langozi ziŵiri nkofunika kaamba ka kupenda kogwira mtima.

Kudziperekera ndi Kulingalira Koyenera

Uphungu wa otetezera uyenera kupenda mosamalitsa kaya ngati machiweruzo otsatizana amawononga ngozi ziŵiri ndi kulingalira kukonza njira yotsutsira pa maziko ameneŵa pa mpata woyamba. Kachitidwe kayenera kusanthula mbali za milandu yoimbidwa pansi pa sicker [1], zindikirani nkhani zilizonse zoimira kutseka kwa lamulo la ulamuliro wa nthaŵi yoyamba, ndi kulongosola kuthekera kwa chiphunzitso cha mbali ziŵiri za ulamuliro.

M'nkhani zimene boma lakhala litalandira chikhululukiro kapena kuimbidwa mlandu m'khoti, uphungu wodzitetezera uyenera kupenda ngati chiphunzitso cha uchifumu waŵiri chimagwira ntchito bwino kapena ngati kuweruza kwa boma kunalamuliridwa bwino ndi akuluakulu a boma. Ngati bomalo linali "ham" lolinganizidwira kuchotsa chitetezo cha boma, upandu wa boma ungaletsedwe.

Kulankhulana ndi Kugula Zinthu Moongoka

Kulingalira za ngozi kaŵiri kungakhale chiŵiya champhamvu m'kukambitsirana. Kukhoza kwa boma kubweretsa milandu yowonjezereka pozenga mlandu pambuyo pake kumalamulidwa ndi malamulo aupandu oŵirikiza, ndipo uphungu wotetezera ungagwiritsire ntchito zoletsa zimenezi kuchepetsa chiwonjezeko cha chikalata. Chikalata chokonzedwa bwino chiyenera kuchotsa poyera kutsutsa kulikonse kotsala koŵirikiza ndipo chiyenera kutchula milandu yeniyeni imene ikugamulidwa kuti apeŵe mikangano yamtsogolo imene ikuphatikizidwa ndi kuchondererako.

Kuzenga Zilango Zambiri

Pamene wofuna kumzenga mlandu ayang'anizana ndi maulamuliro osiyanasiyana, uphungu wotetezera uyenera kulinganiza bwino zinthu ndi kugwirizanitsa nkhani. Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu chaŵiri chimatanthauza kuti kukhululukidwa m'boma lina sikumaimira kuweruza mlandu m’njira ina, koma kumapanga mwaŵi wa kutsimikizira nkhani zenizeni ngati nkhani zenizeni zinathetsedwa moyanja kasitomalayo.

Kumaliza

Lamulo langozi laŵiri limakhalabe maziko a kachitidwe ka upandu wa boma, kutetezera anthu ku mphamvu ya boma kuwachititsa ziyeso mobwerezabwereza ndi zilango zambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Kugwiritsira ntchito kwake malamulo a boma ndi malamulo kumafuna kusanthula mosamalitsa za mbali za milandu yowongoleredwayo, mtundu wa machitidwe oloŵetsedwamo, ndi chitetezo chalamulo chenicheni chimene chilipo. [[FLT: 0] Kuyesa koyambirira kumapereka maziko aumboni wa malamulo a boma, koma oletsa kuletsa, ziphunzitso ziŵiri, ndi malamulo ovuta oyendetsera pamene agwirizana ndi ngozi.

Pamene lamulo la boma laupandu likupitirizabe kufutukuka ndi kuwonjezereka kwa lamulo la lamulo la boma, mawu a ngozi ziŵiri adzakhalabe otetezera kwambiri pa kuchenjeredwa ndi boma. Akatswiri a zamalamulo amene amamvetsetsa bwino kupendedwa kwa mbali imeneyi ya lamulo ali okonzeka bwino kutetezera ufulu wa makasitomala awo ndi kuyendetsa malo oyamba ovuta a lamulo, malamulo a boma, ndi malamulo a boma. Kwa awo amene akufuna kukulitsa chidziŵitso chawo, Conflactal Information Institute [FFFF:1] amapereka chitsogozo chabwino kwambiri pa malamulo alamulo.