Lamulo la ngozi ziŵiri liri limodzi la machinjirizo ofunika koposa m'malamulo aupandu, kutetezera anthu ku kumangidwa kapena kulangidwa kamodzi pa mlandu umodzimodziwo. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chimaletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chachikulu mobwerezabwereza kuukira munthu kaamba ka ka kachitidwe ka upandu kamodzi, mwakutero kutsimikizira kuthera ndi chilungamo m'dongosolo la chilungamo. Pamene kuli kwakuti lingalirolo likuwoneka kukhala lomveka bwino, kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwake kumakhala kocholoŵana pamene chochitika chimodzi chaupandu chipereka milandu yochuluka. Kumvetsetsa pamene milandu yaupandu ya kaŵiri kapena chilango kuli kofunika kwa oimbidwa, maloya, ndi aliyense wokondwerera chiweruzo pa chiweruzo chaupandu.

Kodi Kuopa Kutha Mphamvu Kuŵiri N’kutani?

Maupandu aŵiri ndiwo chitetezo cha lamulo chochokera ku Lamulo lachisanu la United States, limene limanena kuti palibe munthu amene adzaimbidwa mlandu umodzimodziwo kuti aikidwe kuupandu wa moyo kapena kudwala. " lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino limeneli lili ndi chiyambi cha mbiri yakale, kuyambira ku lamulo lakale la Girisi ndi Roma, ndipo limadziŵika m’njira zosiyanasiyana kuzungulira madongosolo ambiri a zamalamulo padziko lonse. Ku United States, lamulo la ngozi limagwira ntchito ponse paŵiri ku boma ndi boma kudzera mu 145th Amend Amendsss &quo; System Claus Claus.

Lingaliro lalikulu nlakuti munthu ataimbidwa mlandu mwalamulo ndipo mlanduwo wayambika, boma liyenera kukhala ndi mpata umodzi wokha wotsimikizira mlandu. Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo wamasulidwa, boma silingapereke apilo kapena kuyesa mlanduwo. Mofananamo, ngati chigamulo chapezedwa ndi kuperekedwa, woimbidwa mlanduyo sangaimbidwenso mlandu umodzimodziwo. Chitetezero chimenechi chimakhala ndi malo osiyanasiyana: kuzengedwa mlandu, kuikidwa pangozi pamene ajuli aikidwa; kuzengedwa mlandu wa ben, pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira; ndi kuchonderera kwa liwongo, pamene khotilo livomereza chilo.

Mfundo yochititsa ngozi ziŵiri zimatchulidwa. Imaletsa boma kuvutitsa anthu mwa kulamula mobwerezabwereza, imasunga kutha kwa ziweruzo, imachepetsa kupweteka kwa malingaliro ndi ndalama kwa oimbidwa mlandu, ndipo imachirikiza umphumphu wa dongosolo la chiweruzo. Monga momwe Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. linatchulira mu Chiluŵa . United States [1] (1957), chigamulo cha kaŵiri chinalinganizidwa kutetezera munthu ku kuyang'anizana ndi ngozi za mlandu ndi chigamulo chothekera kupitirira kamodzi pa mlandu wonenedwa.

Ndalama Zochuluka Zolipiridwa za Upandu Wamodzi

Kachitidwe ka upandu kamodzi kangaswe malamulo ambiri panthaŵi imodzi. Mwachitsanzo, kuba kubanki kungaphatikizepo kuba (kutenga ndalama), kuukira (onenera kuopseza ndi chida), ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti kosaloleka. Chilichonse cha zimenezi chimakhala kuswa lamulo kosiyana, koma zonsezo zimachokera ku chochitika chimodzimodzicho. Mofananamo, kuyendetsa galimoto moŵa kungadzetse mlandu wa Dui, kuyendetsa galimoto mopambanitsa, ndi kuukira munthu wina ngati wavulazidwa.

Oweruza ali ndi nzeru zambiri zozenga woimbidwa mlandu ndi milandu yambiri yogwirizana ndi umboni, malinga ngati mlandu uliwonse ugwirizana ndi mbali zake zalamulo. Mchitidwe umenewu ngwofala chifukwa umalola woweruza kubisa mbali zonse za khalidwe la upandu ndi kupereka chithunzi chonse kwa ajuli. Komabe, funso limabuka: ndi liti pamene amaimba mlandu milandu yambiri chifukwa cha kachitidwe kamodzi umawononga ngozi ziŵiri?

Yankho limadalira pa kaya ngati zinenezozozo zilingaliridwa kukhala mlandu wa " waupandu wa kaŵiri. Ngati milandu iŵiri ili yofanana pansi pa zizindikiro zosiyana, boma lingangopereka mlandu umodzi. Koma ngati mlandu uliwonse uli ndi mbali imodzi imene inayo siili, ndi milandu yosiyana ndipo ingaperekedwe pamodzi kapena ngakhale m’mayesero osiyana. Kusiyanitsa kumeneku kuli pa mtima wopenda ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri m'nkhani zopereka ndalama zambiri.

Ziletso Zochuluka

Upandu waŵiri umaika ziletso ziŵiri zazikulu pamene milandu yambiri ibuka kuchokera ku kachitidwe kaupandu kamodzi: imatsekera mazunzo ambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo, ndipo imatsekera zilango zambiri [ kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Funso lowopsa ndilo kaya ngati milanduyo ipanga & quot; mlandu wa upo. " khoti limagwiritsira ntchito ziyeso zingapo kupanga chigamulo chimenechi, chotchuka koposa chikhale kuyesa kwa Blockburger.

Kuyesa Malo Otsekereza

Mu . . United States (1932), Bwalo Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa " sings-profiles " kuyesa: ngati lamulo lililonse lifuna umboni wa chinthu chimene wina sakufuna, pamenepo milanduyo imasiyana ndi kuopsa koŵirikiza komwe sikuletsa kumangidwa kwa milandu kapena chilango. Mwachitsanzo, kuba kumafuna kutenga katundu mokakamiza kapena moopseza, pamene kuukira kumafuna kuvulaza kapena kuvulaza. Upandu uliwonse umaphatikizapo mbali ina yosoŵa (kusoŵa kutenga chinthu; kuukira kumafuna kukumana kapena kudzimva ndi iko), chotero kuli kusiyanitsa ngakhale ngati kuchitidwa mkati mwa chochitika chimodzimodzicho.

Mosiyana ndi zimenezi, ngati munthu wina walakwa pang'ono ndi tchimo laling'ono chifukwa chakuti mbali iliyonse ya kupha munthu wachiŵiri ndi yofunika kutsimikizira kuti ndi wamkulu, ndiye kuti ndi mlandu umodzimodziwo pa zolinga za ngozi ziwiri. Mwachitsanzo, kupha munthu wachiwiri ndi mlandu wochepa kwambiri wakupha munthu woyamba chifukwa chakuti munthu aliyense wakupha mnzake ayenera kuvomerezedwa kuti akhale ndi chigamulo choyamba (kupha munthu asanaphedwe).

Mayeso a Blockburger amagwiritsiridwa ntchito mwa kuyang’ana ku mamasuliridwe a state, osati nsonga zenizeni za mlanduwo.

Colleteral Estomal Mlandu wa Apandu

Chiletso china chotengedwa ku ngozi ziŵiri ndicho chiphunzitso cha kuyang'anira kuletsa, chimene chimaletsa boma kugamula mfundo imene inagamulidwa kale mu woimbidwa mlandu’ chiyanjo. Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wamasulidwa kukupha chifukwa chakuti ajuli anapeza kuti imfa inali yangozi, boma silingapereke mlandu wofanana wa munthu wonyozedwa chifukwa cha imfa yomweyo, chifukwa chakuti nkhani ya ngoziyo inathetsedwa kale. Khoti Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito lamulo limeneli Aspe v. Sweson , kumene woimbidwa mlandu anamasulidwa chifukwa cha kulanda munthu mmodzi koma pambuyo pake anayesa kulanda munthu wina pa chochitikacho; Khoti lija lachiŵirilo linali ndi logamupeza kuti linalibe mlandu.

Kulangidwa Mosiyanasiyana

Ngakhale pamene milandu yambiri ingaperekedwe pa mlandu umodzi, kuopsa koŵirikiza kuchepetsa chilango chimene woimbidwa mlandu angalandire. Ngati milandu iŵiri yapezedwa kukhala mlandu umodzimodzi wa Blockburger, khoti likhoza kungopereka chilango chimodzi. Zimenezi kaŵirikaŵiri zimachitika m’mikhalidwe imene woimbidwa mlandu wa mlandu waukulu ndi waung'ono. Khotilo liyenera kuchotsa chigamulo chochepa kapena kulumikiza zigamulozo kuti lipeŵe chilango choŵirikiza kaŵiri. RUTLEDG . United States (1996], Khoti Lapamwamba linasunga chigamulo chakuti chigamulo cha kugaŵira mankhwala ndi kugawa kwa apanduko opitirizabe (CCE) linali mlandu wofanana wa zifuno zopereka chilango.

Opatulidwa ndi Osamalidwa Mwalamulo

Kutetezeredwa kwa ngozi ziŵiri sikuli kotheratu.

Chiphunzitso cha Uchifumu Chogwirizana

Chosiyana chachikulu kwambiri ndicho chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa aŵiri. Pansi pa chiphunzitso chimenechi, kachitidwe kamodzimodzika kangaikidwe mlandu ndi onse aŵiri boma ndi boma chifukwa chakuti iwo ali odziimira. Wolamulira aliyense ali ndi malamulo ake ndi chikondwerero chake m'kusungitsa. Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene amalanda banki yosungidwa mwalamulo angaikidwe mlandu wa kuba ndi kuba kwa banki kwa boma kwa boma; kulakwa kapena chigamulo m'khoti limodzi sichimaletsa kuswa lamulo m'li lina. Khoti Lapamwamba linatchulanso lamulo limeneli mu . United States[FLD:] ndi , , kusungitsa kuti kulakwa kulakwa kuŵirikizana kwa kaŵiri sikumasungidwa ndi oimira oimira odzipatula.

Mwachitsanzo, kudutsa malire a boma panthaŵi ya upandu kungachititse kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo aikidwe mlandu m’zigawo zonse ziŵiri. Komabe, malamulo ena a boma amapereka chitetezo chowonjezereka choŵirikiza kuŵirikiza kuŵirikiza kuopsa kwa milandu yotsatira.

Kulephera kwa Mabanja ndi Hung Jury

Ngati mlandu utha chifukwa cha kulakwa koonekera bwino (monga ngati juli yopachikidwa, chophophonya chachibadwa, kapena ngozi ya zamankhwala), boma lingatsutse woimbidwa mlandu. Oweruza opachikidwawo amachitika pamene ajuli sangathe kugamula chigamulo chimodzi; khotilo limalengeza kulakwa, ndipo mlanduwo ungaikidwenso popanda kuphwanya mlanduwo chifukwa chakuti woimbidwa mlanduyo sanakhululukidwe kapena kuimbidwa mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linamangidwa mu United States v. Perez[FLT:] [1824])) kuti chigamulo cha mlandu cha kaŵiri sichingatsutsidwenso pamene oweruzawongo ali osakhoza kuvomereza.

Apandu Apitiriza

Chikalata cha ngozi ziŵiri chimagwira ntchito kokha ku milandu ya upandu. Boma lingabweretse kachitidwe kachiŵeniŵeni kotsutsana ndi woimbidwa mlandu kaamba ka mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo, monga ngati kulandidwa mlandu wa boma kapena kuperekedwa kwa mlandu wa kuwonongeka. Mwachitsanzo, munthu wopezedwa wogulitsidwa ndi kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo angawopsezedwenso ndi ndalama kapena katundu wogwiritsiridwa ntchito pa upanduwo. Ngakhale ngati chilango cha boma chikhala kuweruza kwachiŵeniŵeniŵeni kwa m’chilengedwe, sichipanganso chiŵeru; chilango chokhapo ngati lamulo lachiŵeniŵenicho sichingalingalingalingalingaliridwe kukhala chipandu (kupeza kochepera). Mofananamo, wozengedwa mlandu wa kulakwa kwa kulakwa kwa chigamulo chifukwa cha kubweretsedwa ndi wodwalayo.

Kukonzanso Zinthu Pambuyo Popempha

Ngati woimbidwa mlandu waimbidwa mlandu ndiyeno n’kuchonderera chigamulo, boma lingayese woimbidwa mlandu pa milandu imodzimodziyo. Khoti la Appellate’ kusintha kwathetsa mlandu woyambirira, chotero ngozi siinathe. Komabe, ngati apilolo la kusudzulidwa (kapena ndi khoti la appellate kapena chifukwa chakuti umboniwo sunali wokwanira), woimbidwayo sangabwezedwenso. Khoti Lapamwamba mu Bursks v. United States[FLT:] [1988]) anakhulupirira kuti kusinthidwa kwa umboni wosakwanira kuli kofanana ndi masulo ndi mabwalo ozemba.

Kukongoletsa Mlandu

Upandu waŵiri sumaletsa makhoti kulingalira za kumbuyoko monga zigamulo zokwezedwa ku upandu watsopano, ngakhale ngati zitsimikizirozo zoyambirirazo zinabuka kuchokera ku mkhalidwe wapansi monga mlandu wamakono. Khoti Lapamwamba mu Witte v. United States (1995] (1995) linakhulupirira kuti kugwiritsira ntchito khalidwe lapasadakhale kukulitsa chilango sikupanga chilango chachiŵiri kaamba ka mayendedwewo, chifukwa chakuti chilangocho chiri cha mlandu watsopano, osati mlandu wapambuyo.

Zovuta Zogwira Ntchito ndi Maluso Otetezera

Kuzindikira ziletso za ngozi ziŵiri nkofunika kwa maloya otetezera. Pamene wozengedwa mlandu wochuluka wa chochitika chimodzi, kudzitetezera kuyenera kusanthula ngati mlandu uliwonse ulidi mlandu umodzimodzi. Ngati milandu iŵiri yalephera mayeso a Blockburger (i.e, imodzi ndi mlandu waung’ono wa wina), kudzitetezera kungayambitse kuchotsa mlandu wochepawo kapena kulumikizira zigamulozo poweruza mlandu.

Ndiponso, maloya ayenera kukhala osamala ponena za kuzenga mlandu kotsatizana. Ngati boma libweretsa mlandu poyamba ndipo wolipirirayo atamasulidwa, wodzitetezerayo ayenera kutsutsa mwamsanga kulakwa koŵirikiza ngati zinenezo zatsopano ziikidwa pambali ya kachitidwe kofananako. Chiphunzitso chotetezera kuletsa kulakwa kwa lamulo chingakhalenso chida champhamvu pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kwa kachigawo: ajuli amene amavomereza mlandu umodzi angakhale atagamula kuti makhoti azenge mlandu wofananawo.

Oweruza nawonso, ayenera kulinganiza mosamalitsa zosankha zawo zopereka mlandu kuti apeŵe kuletsa ngozi ziŵiri. Kuzenga kungatsogolere ku kuchotsedwa, kubwezeredwa ku apilo, ndi kuwononga chuma chachiweruzo. M'zigawo zina, makhoti ali ndi ulamuliro wa kukakamiza boma kusankha pakati pa milandu yokopa mlandu usanaikidwe.

Zitsanzo zenizeni za dziko zimasonyeza mapulinsipulo ameneŵa. M'nkhani yotchuka ya Anthu adatsutsa kuti zikhulupiriro ziŵiri zakupha zinali mlandu umodzimodzi ndi kulamula kuti chimodzi cha zikhulupirirozo chikhale chosiyana. Mosiyana, mu United States v. Dixon (1993]), Khoti Lapamwamba linalimbana ndi kunyozedwa ndi khoti ndi kulakwa kwa upandu (aswa) linali lofanana ndi lolamulira chimodzi cha zikhulupirirozo.

Malinga ndi malamulo, zitetezero za ngozi ziŵiri zimakhala ndi chiyambukiro chochititsa mantha pa oweruza ozembedwa. Popanda chitetezo chotero, boma lingafooke ndi kuimbidwa mlandu mobwerezabwereza, kuchotsa ndalama zawo, ndi kusungidwa mwa kuchitiridwa chifundo mmalo mwa chilungamo. Chitetezerocho chimatsimikiziranso kuti zigamulo za ajuli za kukhululukidwa ziri zomalizira, zimene zimasungitsa chiyero cha dongosolo la oweruza.

Kumaliza

Ziletso zoikidwa ndi ngozi ziŵiri m'milandu ya upandu umodzi zimatumikira kulinganiza kulinganiza kwa boma’ kufunitsitsa kuweruza khalidwe la upandu ndi munthu aliyense’ kuyenera kwa kumasuka ku kuvutitsidwa ndi chilango chobwerezabwereza. Mfungulo yagona m’kusiyanitsa pakati pa milandu yosiyana (mikhalidwe yosiyana ya malamulo) ndi mlandu umodzimodziwo (kumene munthu ali wophatikizidwa pang'ono kapena mlanduwo amagaŵana mbali zonse). Pamene kuli kwakuti kuyesa kwa Blockburger kumapereka maziko owonekera bwino, osasiyana ndi mbali ziŵiri za ulamuliro, kulakwa, ndi kuweruza kwa anthu. Malamulo ayenera kukhalabe ndi mlandu wokhudzana ndi lamulo, monga makhoti akupitirizabe kuyeretsa malire a ngozi.

Potsirizira pake, kuzindikira ziletso zimenezi kumapatsa mphamvu oimbidwa mlanduwo ndi uphungu wawo kukhazikitsa bwino lomwe zoyenera za lamulo ndi kutsimikizira kuti dongosolo la chiweruzo laupandu limagwira ntchito molungama ndi momalizira. Kaya ndinu wophunzira wa lamulo, loya wokangalika, kapena munthu woyang’anizana ndi milandu yaupandu, kuzindikira kuthekera kwa ngozi yoŵirikiza ndiko maziko a kuŵerengera malamulo m’mbali iriyonse imene imaŵerengera lamulo.

kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, fufuzani [[FLT: 1] Cornell Information Institute ’ kusanthula kwa maupandu oŵirikiza , Bwalo Lalikulu &squo; chigamulo mu tamburger v. United States [FLT:] , ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwamakono mu GGOGY v. United States [FL:6]