Chiyambi: Mfundo Yofunika Kwambiri Yokhudza Kuika Anthu Paupandu

Maupandu aŵiri ndiwo chiphunzitso chalamulo chotsimikizirika chimene chimatetezera anthu ku kumangidwa kapena kulangidwa kamodzi kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Lamulo limeneli limagwira ntchito monga kuyang'anira kosamala pa mphamvu ya boma, kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chachikulu mobwerezabwereza kuukira nzika kaamba ka khalidwe lomwe limatchedwa. Linazikidwa m'malamulo akale ndi kuikidwa m'malamulo amakono, kuopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri kutsimikizira kutha, chilungamo, ndi kukhazikika kwa lamulo. Ku United States, kumasungidwa mu Firn cent Amendment , imene imalengeza kuti palibe munthu amene adzagonjera ku tsoka limodzimodzilo kuti aikidwe kaŵiri m'maupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo chamakono. Zitetezero ziŵiri zotero zilipo m'malamulo ambiri padziko lonse lapansi, kusonyeza kudzipereka kutetezera anthu onse ku mavuto osatha.

Kumvetsa kuopsa kwa maupandu n’kofunika osati kwa akatswiri a zalamulo okha komanso kwa aliyense amene akufuna kumvetsetsa ufulu wa munthu payekha ndi ubwino wake polanga tchimo. Nkhaniyi idzafufuza kumene mlandu unachokera, chitetezo chachikulu, kusiyana ndi, kusiyana maganizo, ndiponso mikangano yapanthaŵiyo yokhudza ngozi.

Chiyambi ndi Kukula kwa Mbiri

Maziko a ngozi ziŵiri anayambira ku Greece ndi Roma wakale, kumene lingaliro la bis mu chisimu [1] ("osati kaŵiri kwa chinthu chimodzimodzi") linayamba kupangidwa. Komabe, chiphunzitso chamakono chachokera ku lamulo la Chingelezi. Pofika zaka za zana la 12, makhoti a ku England anazindikira kuti munthu sayenera kuimbidwanso mlandu pambuyo pa kuchotsedwa. Lamulolo linatsimikiziridwanso m'zaka za zana la 17 ndi akatswiri a zamalamulo onga Sir Edward Coke, amene analemba za kusalungama kwa milandu yobwerezabwereza.

Chitetezo chinaperekedwa ku maiko a ku America monga mbali ya choloŵa cha lamulo wamba. Pambuyo pa Kusintha kwa America, Abambo Opezedwa anaphatikizapo mu Demendment yachisanu monga kuyang'anira kuthekera kwa kupondereza boma latsopano. Khoti Lapamwamba pambuyo pake linaphatikizapo njira yachiŵiri ya Jeopardy Claus ku maiko kudzera ku Demendment ya 1448 m'nkhani ya Benton v. Maryland [1] (699). Lerolino, chiphunzitsocho ndi maziko a njira yaupandu mu United States ndipo chasonkhezera malamulo ena ofala, kuphatikizapo Canada, Australia, ndi United Kingdom.

M'maiko a boma, lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino kaŵirikaŵiri limatchulidwa monga mabikone mu zitsiru zawo, ngakhale kuti mapangano enieni angasiyane. Msonkhano wa ku Ulaya wa Ufulu wa Anthu umaphatikizaponso matembenuzidwe mu Mfundo 4 ya Lamulo No. 7, kuletsa kuphedwanso pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa komaliza kapena chigamulo mkati mwa boma limodzimodzilo.

Zitetezero za Madzi Opachikidwa pa Madzi

Kulumikizira Moyenerera Mafano Oopsa

Chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri zisanagwire ntchito, ngozi iyenera choyamba "kulumikizidwa. M'kuzenga mlandu wa oweruza, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene aweruza alumbiro. M’kuzengedwa mlandu kwa benchi, imagwirizanitsidwa pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbiro. Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo aikidwa m’ngozi yalamulo ya kugamulidwa ndi chilango. Ngati mlandu utha mu mlandu wosakhululukidwa asanafike pa chigamulo, kapena ngati mlandu wapezeka, kuzengedwa mlandu kotsatira kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo umaletsedwa.

Kumasulidwa Chifukwa Chofunika Kwambiri

Chitetezero champhamvu koposa cha ngozi ziŵiri nchakuti kumasulidwa, kaya mwa chiweruzo cha oweruza, chigamulo chotsogozedwa, kapena kupeza kwachiweruzo kwa umboni wosakwanira, kuli komaliza. Mlandu sungathe kuvomereza mlandu, ndipo woimbidwa mlanduyo sangabwezedwenso [1] ngakhale ngati umboni watsopano wa liwongo ubuka. Lamulo limeneli limasonyeza kufunika kwakukulu kwa dongosolo lalamulo pamapeto a upo wa oweruza kapena chiweruzo cha kuyesa kufunafuna woimbidwa mlandu wosalakwa. Khoti Lapamwamba mu Udzudzu. United States [FLT:] (1197] (197) linagogomezera kuti "Boma ndi chuma chake chonse ndi mphamvu siziyenera kuloledwa kuyesa kuweruza munthu wina kuti aikidwe."

Kukhulupirira Kumachititsa Kuti Munthu Wolakwa Asalandirenso Chilango

Chikhululukiro chimatsekerezanso mlandu uliwonse wotsatira chifukwa cha mlandu umodzimodziwo. Mlandu utapezedwa wa mlandu ndi kuweruzidwa, iwo sangaikidwenso mlanduwo . Ngakhale ngati chigamulocho pambuyo pake chachotsedwa pa apilo. Komabe, ngati chigamulo chasinthidwa chifukwa cha kuzenga zolakwa (monga malangizo osayenera a ajuli kapena kulakwa kwa aloya), woimbidwa mlanduyo angabwezedwe chifukwa chakuti ngoziyo sinatulutse chigamulo chomaliza. Imeneyi imadziŵika kukhala "kupimikiridwa kwa lamulo lotsimikizirika".

Colleteral Estomal Mlandu wa Apandu

Maupandu aŵiri amaphatikizaponso chiphunzitso cha kuyang'anira kutsekeredwa kwa zinthu, kapena kuulutsa. Zimenezi zimaletsa boma kuvomereza nkhani yowona imene inagamulidwa m’chiyanjo cha woimbidwa mlanduyo asanachite. Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wamasulidwa ku kuba panthaka kuti sanali woukira, bomalo silingawaikire mlandu pambuyo pake pa mlandu wina umene umadalira kutsimikizira chizindikiritso chimodzimodzicho. Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza lamulo limeneli mu Aspe. Swenson (1970).

Zolekanitsa ndi Zolephera pa Ulamulirowo

Ngakhale kuti pali mphamvu, ngozi ya kaŵiri siimakhala yokwanira. Malamulo angapo oikidwa bwino amalola boma kuweruza munthu nthaŵi zingapo pamkhalidwe wofanana, kapena kupereka chilango chochuluka.

Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Yosiyana

Chimodzi cha zinthu zofunika kwambiri ndicho "atsogoleri opatulidwa" chiphunzitso. Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, munthu angaikidwe mlandu ndi onse aŵiri boma ndi boma kaamba ka ntchito yofanana. Wolamulira aliyense ali ndi malamulo ake ndi chifuno chake cha kulanga cholakwa. Mwachitsanzo, mlandu wa mbiri yoipa wa [[FLT:] .[FLT] . [FLT] NILG] [1] [1] wophatikizidwa ndi onse aŵiriwo [ayene] kuphana ndi kuphulitsa mabomba a boma chifukwa cha ntchito yake mu Oklahoma City. Khoti Lapamwamba linabwerezanso chiphunzitso chimenechi mu [FLT:] v. United States (20.9]), pochita kuti sichimaswa malamulo a chisanu. Mofanana, munthu angayesedwe ndi malamulo aŵiri osiyana ngati aswa malamulo aŵiri.

Zolakwa Zosiyana Molamulidwa ndi Mfumu Imodzi

Kusiyana kwachiŵiri kumachitika pamene mlandu wachiŵiri uphatikizapo mlandu wina, ngakhale ngati unachitika ndi kachitidwe kaupandu kofanana. Kuyesako kunakhazikitsidwa mu . United States [1932]: ngati mlandu uliwonse ufuna umboni wakuti winawo suli wolakwa, umalingaliridwa kukhala mlandu wosiyana, ndipo amaloledwa kuweruza kotsatira. Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene amagwiritsira ntchito chida panthaŵi yakuba angaikidwe mlandu wakuba ndi upandu wosiyana wa kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti panthaŵi ya upandu wachiwawa, ngakhale kuti zonse ziŵirizo zimabuka kuchokera ku chochitika chimodzimodzicho.

Kuzenganso Malamulo

Kulakwa kwa mlandu kunalengeza "kufunikira kwambiri" — monga ngati juli yopachikidwa, oweruza omangidwa dala, kapena kulakwa kwakukulu kwa lamulo logamula milandu — sikumaletsa kuweruzanso. Kuvomereza kwa woimbidwa mlandu kumatsutsanso kulakwa kwa maupandu aŵiri. Komabe, ngati [FLT: 0] wopha mnzakeyo mwadala akuputa mlandu [[FLT:] kuti apeze phindu la chenjera, Jeopardy Claus e count project requal. Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula zimenezi mu [[FLT:] v. Kennedy . [FLD:] [198], likupempha chitsimikiziro cha woweruza mlandu kuti adzudzudzule.

Apandu Apitiriza

Munthu angaikidwe mlandu pa milandu iwiri yokha. Munthu angaikidwe mlandu chifukwa cha kuvulazidwa ndi chiwembu chimodzi, ngakhale atamukhululukira. Milandu yotchuka ya O.J. Simpson [Kupanda kuphedwa [1] (Kulakwa kwa kupha koma kupezeka kuti ali ndi mlandu wa ku khoti chifukwa cha imfa yolakwika) ikusonyeza zimenezi. Mofananamo, munthu angayang'ane ndi chilango cha boma, monga laisensi kapena chilango cha akatswiri, kuwonjezera pa chilango cha upandu. Zimenezi zimaonedwa kukhala zachiŵerembere m’chilengedwe ndipo sizimateteza anthu ku ngozi.

Kufufuzanso Atakopeka ndi Woteteza

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu avomereza mwachipambano chitsimikiziro ndi kupeza chisinthiko, chiganizo cha ngozi chaŵiricho kaŵirikaŵiri chimalola kuzenganso. Chifuno nchakuti ngozi yoyambirira sinathetsedwa ndi chiweruzo chomaliza . "iku imapitirizabe kufikira chitsimikiziro chotsimikizirika kapena kukhululukidwa kupezedwa. Komabe, ngati kusinthidwako kwazikidwa pa umboni wosakwanira, boma silingayese mlanduwo chifukwa chakuti lingakhale lofanana ndi kukhululukidwa. Lamulo limeneli linakhazikitsidwa mu Burs v. United States [17] [7]

Kuopa Kuŵiri m’Malamulo Osiyanasiyana

United States

Dongosolo la U.S. ndi limodzi la mayeso otetezera kwambiri ku ufulu wa kuwopsa kwaŵiri, makamaka ponena za kukhululukidwa. Monga momwe tanenera, kukhululukidwa kuli komaliza ndipo sikungapitidwe. Komabe, maulamuliro apadera ndi chiphunzitso cha . Singler [1] yoyesa imachititsa mipata yapadera. Otsutsa ena amatsutsa kuti zimenezi zimachepetsa chifuno cha lamulo, makamaka m’nkhani za nkhanza za apolisi kapena kuswa zoyenera za anthu kumene boma ndi milandu ya boma ingachitike.

United Kingdom

Malamulo a ku England ambiri anali ndi lamulo lolimba lokhudza ngozi ziwiri, koma linamasuka mu 2005 pamene panadutsa lamulo la Criminal Justice Act . Pa milandu yaikulu (m’chitsanzo, kupha, kugwirira chigololo, kuba ndi zida), woweruza angagwire ntchito ku Bwalo la Apilo kuti achotse cholakwa ngati "umboni watsopano ndi womveka" ikuonekera. Kusintha kumeneku kunachitidwa ndi nkhani zapamwamba za pulojekiti kumene pambuyo pake DNA inasonyeza kuti ndilo lolakwa. Scotland ali ndi mlandu wofanana, ngakhale kuti ndi wochepa, kusiyapo.

Canada

Malamulo a Canada amavomereza ngozi ziŵiri pansi pa Chigawo 11 (h) cha Charter of Rights and Freedoms, chimene chimachinjiriza kutsutsidwa ndi kulangidwanso kaamba ka mlandu umene munthu wamasulidwa kapena kuimbidwa mlandu. Mabwalo amilandu a Canada achitapo kanthu mwamphamvu, ngakhale kuti kusiyapo ku dongosolo la U.S. kulipo, monga ngati chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wodziimira pambali ponena za ulamuliro wa chigawo ndi boma.

Maiko a Malamulo a Chiŵeniŵeni

M'malamulo a boma monga France, Germany, ndi Japan, zitetezero za ngozi ziŵiri kaŵirikaŵiri zimakhala zotsimikizirika kwambiri, popanda zochepera. Lamulo la [[FLT: 0] bis mu chidetso limagwiritsiridwa ntchito mokulira, kuletsa ponse paŵiri kumangidwa ndi chilango kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kofanana mosasamala kanthu za ulamuliro. Komabe, maupandu a mitundu yonse ndi milandu yotsatizana zingayambitse nkhani zovuta.

Kutsutsana ndi Kusuliza kwa Patsogolo

Vuto la Umboni Watsopano

Chimodzi cha zisulizo zopitirizabe za ngozi ziŵiri ndizo chikhoterero chake cha kupendedwanso pamene umboni watsopano upezeka pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa. Mu United Kingdom, monga momwe kwatchulidwira, lamulo linasinthidwa kulola kuperekedwanso kwa milandu yaikulu pamene umboni watsopano ubuka. Ku United States, akatswiri ambiri a zamalamulo ndi mikhole ya ana aitana kaamba ka kusintha kofananako, makamaka kaamba ka maupandu achiwawa onga ngati kupha ndi kugwirira chigololo kumene umboni wa DNA ungatsimikizire kukhala wolakwa. Otsutsa akutsutsa kuti kusintha lamulolo kungafooketse kugamula komalizira kwa zigamulo ndi kupatsa boma mphamvu yokulira ya kukonzanso milandu.

Zikhulupiriro Zolakwa ndi Zolakwa

Maupandu aŵiri amachitanso mbali m'nkhani zolakwika. Pamene kuli kwakuti woimbidwa mlandu angabwezeretsedwe pambuyo pa apilo lachipambano, ngati mlandu wa woweruzayo unali wofooka ndipo chitsimikizo chake chinachotsedwa pa kusagwira bwino umboni, kugamulanso kumaletsedwa. Zimenezi zingaletse boma kuwongolera zolakwa zimene zinapangitsa kulakwa, komanso zimatetezeranso wolakwayo ku milandu yosatha. Kulimbana pakati pa kumaliza ndi kulondola kumakhala mkangano waukulu.

Kulanga Anthu Mosiyanasiyana: Kubwezera

Chiletso cha zilango zambiri pa mlandu umodzimodziwo chimadzutsanso mafunso ponena za kuweruza. Pamene woimbidwa mlandu wa milandu iŵiri imene imabuka kuchokera ku mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo, khotilo liyenera kutsimikizira kuti chilango chowonjezeracho sichikupitirira. Maboma ena ali ndi "jur" ziphunzitso zimene zimafuna kuti machimo ochepa aphatikizepo oyenera kuikidwa, pamene kuli kwakuti ena amalola zigamulo zotsatizana pansi pa mikhalidwe ina. Sinkibirburger [1] Mayeso akugwiritsiridwa ntchito kutsimikizira ngati zilango zambiri zili zololedwa.

Nkhani za Mtundu Wonse ndi za Mtanda

M'dziko lokhala ndi maupandu owonjezereka, malamulo aupandu oŵirikiza amayesedwa ndi upandu wopingalirira. Mwachitsanzo, munthu womasulidwa m'dziko lina angayang'anizane ndi mlandu wina kaamba ka ka kachitidwe kamodzimodzi. Tsankho ndi misonkhano yamitundu yonse, monga Rome Signate of the International Criminal Court, imafunafuna kugwirizanitsa nkhani zimenezi, koma kusalinganako kudakalipo. European Union yayamba kugwiritsira ntchito ma bis mu Directem [[[FLM:1] mu Mfundo 54 ya Schengen Convention, barring Reprosection pakati pa EUC kaamba ka chigamulo chomalizira cha chigamulo chimodzi.

Zovuta Zothandiza Anyamata Ofunika Kwambiri

Kwa Otetezera

Maupandu aŵiri amapereka mtendere wa maganizo wofunika kwambiri umene boma silingawavutitse mosalekeza pambuyo pa kuimbidwa mlandu. Limalimbikitsanso kugwirizana ndi dongosolo, monga momwe oimbidwa mlandu amadziŵira kuti kuchonderera kapena kutsimikiza kumamaliza. Komabe, oimbidwa mlandu ayenera kudziŵa kulakwa kwa boma monga ngati ayang'anizana ndi mlandu pambuyo pa boma lokhululukidwa . Woweruza wa savvy adzapenda ngati khalidwe limodzimodzilo lingayambitse milandu yambiri kapena kuchititsa kuweruza kochulukira.

Kwa Oweruza

Oweruza ayenera kusankha mosamalitsa milandu imene angaiike m'khoti. Kuweruza kungatsogolere ku chigamulo chaching'ono chimene chimaletsa kuzenga mlandu waukulu pambuyo pake. Koma, pofufuza, kungatuluketse kukanidwa ndi machitidwe ena. Chiphunzitsochi chimakakamizanso oweruza kupereka umboni wonse wopezeka pamlandu, popeza kuti pambuyo pake sangatsegule mlanduwo atachotsedwa. Mlandu wambiri, kugwirizana pakati pa boma ndi a loya a boma kuyenera kupeŵa mitsulo yowopsa.

Kwa Ovutika

Kwa ochitiridwa upandu, ngozi yoŵirikiza ingakhale yopanda chilungamo kwambiri pamene wolakwayo aletsa wolakwayo kuŵerengeredwanso mlandu pambuyo pake. Magulu achinyengo kaŵirikaŵiri amasonkhezera kukonzanso zinthu m'nkhani za "umboni wowonekeratu wa liwongo" Komabe, lamulolo limatetezeranso minkhole ku kuvomereza kupsinjika kwa kuchitiridwa umboni m’mayesero mobwerezabwereza. Kulinganizikako kuli kowopsa.

Kumaliza

Maupandu aŵiri adakali chitetezo chofunika kwambiri kwa ochenjeredwa ndi boma, kutsimikizira kuti anthu savutika ndi nkhaŵa, ndalama, ndi kunyozedwa ndi milandu yambiri ya mlandu umodzimodzi.

Pamene malamulo asintha ndi kuwonjezereka kwa upandu wopinga, lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino lidzapitirizabe kuyang'anizana ndi mavuto. Kutsutsana ponena za kulola mayeso ozikidwa pa umboni watsopano, ukulu wa chilango, ndi kugwirizanitsa malamulo a mitundu yonse kudzaumba mtsogolo mwa ngozi ziŵiri.

Kuti muŵerenge zambiri, onani [[FLT: 0] Chiganizo cha Malamulo cha Chidziŵitso cha Malamulo cha kuopsa koŵirikiza , U.S. Dipatimenti ya malangizo a Chilungamo [, ndi lingaliro la Khoti Lalikulu mu [[FLT:] [[FLT:] [5]] Gweroglv v. United States (20:9). Kuthandiza kwa maphunziro kungapezeke mu [FLT:] nkhani imeneyi ya lamulo [[FLT:]]