Lamulo la kuopsa kwa kaŵiri ndilo chitetezo cha lamulo chimene chimatetezera anthu kuti asayesedwe kapena kulangidwa kamodzi chifukwa cha mlandu womwewo. Limazikidwa pa Fit 5 Amendment, chitetezo chimenechi chimaonedwa ngati maziko a njira zaupandu. Komabe, ziyambukiro zake zimaposa pa khoti la apandu, kusonkhezera ufulu wachibadwidwe ndi mankhwala amene alipo kwa anthu opatulidwa, kusamvera malamulo a boma. Kuzindikira mmene kuopsa kwa magulu a anthu ogwirizana ndi ufulu wachibadwidwe kulili kuli kofunika kwa malo ochitira upandu, ndi kuchuluka kwa oweruza milandu, ndi a Placyffs , ma plaiglation , magnum.

Nkhaniyi ikupenda maziko a chiphunzitso a kuopsa kwa kaŵiri, kugwirizana kwake kwachibadwa ndi zonena za boma, ndi kulephera kumene limaika pa mankhwala otetezera ufulu wa anthu. Ikonso kukusanthula ziphunzitso zogwirizana ndi kuyambika kwa ufulu wa anthu . Zonga ngati jucatata ndi kuimira estopel . imene imatumikira ntchito zachikhalidwe cha anthu, ndi kufotokoza kubuka kwa kusiyana ndi mikhalidwe imene imapanga kupeka kwamakono.

Maziko a Malamulo a Maupandu Aŵiri

Chikalata chachisanu cha Kusintha kwa Lamulo la U.S. chimapereka kuti palibe munthu amene “adzaikidwa m'ngozi yofananayo kaŵiri. Mawu ameneŵa amaletsa boma kuweruza munthu pa mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kugamulidwa, ndipo amaletsa chilango chambiri pa upandu umodzimodziwo. Chitetezerochi chimagwira ntchito ku mabwalo a milandu ndipo, kudzera pa Gemeterment ya 14, chimaletsanso boma kuweruza milandu.

Maupandu aŵiri amatumikira zifuno zazikulu zingapo: amaletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chokulira kuvutitsa woimbidwa mlandu, amasunga kutha kwa ziweruzo zaupandu, ndipo amatetezera umphumphu wa dongosolo la oweruza. Makhalidwe ameneŵa amakhomerezedwa kwambiri m'chiweruzo cha ku America, ndipo makhoti anena mosalekeza kuti chitetezocho chiyenera “kulemekezedwa mopanda mantha. [1] Komabe kuyendera pamodzi kolondola kwa chimene chimapanga “mlanduwo” ndi pamene chiwopsezo cha“ zomangirira za jujiro ndi kumasulira.

Khoti Lapamwamba lapanga mayeso aakulu aŵiri odziŵira ngati milandu iŵiri njofanana. Pansi pa Sitburger (kuyesedwa ndi ] . United States , 284 U.S.9), milandu iŵiri imalingaliridwa mofanana ngati aliyense safuna umboni wa chenicheni chakuti winayo satero. Kuyesa kwachiŵiri, kochitidwa m'nkhani zotsatira, kufunsa ngati mlandu wachiŵiri ukanaphatikizapo khalidwe limodzimodzi ndi ngati boma likanabweretsa milandu yonse pa kamodzi. Kuyesaku kumakhala ndi kuimira kolunjika kwachi kwa ufulu wa anthu, pamene cholakwa chimodzi chingakhale chigamutsira mlandu waupandu ndi kuwonjezera milandu yachiŵembu.

Kuti muloŵe kwambiri m'chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiri, onani Cornell Legal Information Institute ya chidule cha .

Kupitirizabe kwa Chiŵeniŵeni: Kusiyana Kowopsa

Imodzi ya nkhani zofunika kwambiri [1] ndi kuimvetsa bwino kwambiri , kuopsa kwa kulakwa kwa kaŵiri pa ufulu wa anthu ndi yakuti chitetezo chimagwira ntchito kokha pa milandu ya upandu. Kuzengedwa mlandu, ngakhale munthu amene akufunafuna chilango cha khalidwe lomwe linayambitsa mlandu waupandu, samaonedwa kukhala “kulephera kwa" kaamba ka malamulo. Izi nchifukwa chakuti malamulo a boma amalinganizidwa kubwezera anthu ndi kuletsa kusamvera malamulo, osati kulanga ochita zoipa m’njira yofanana ndi chigamulo chaupandu.

Komabe, mzera pakati pa zilango zachiŵeniŵeni ndi zaupandu ungachoke. Hudson v. United States, 522 U.S. 93 , Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti chilango cha boma chingaonedwe kukhala chilango cha kuopsa kwa zigamulo ziŵiri ngati chili “kubwezera chilango ndi chiyambukiro ngati kuli kupatsa mlandu. Makhoti aakulu agwiritsira ntchito kuchotsapo katundu, ziletso zachiŵembu, ndipo ngakhale ziŵeruzo zina za boma. M'nkhani yachiŵeruzo, chilango chaperekedwa pa zifukwa zachiŵeniŵeni chiwonecho chikatsutso pamene woimbidwa kale walangidwa mwaupandu chifukwa cha khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Khoti kaŵirikaŵiri limakana kutsutsa mavutowa, koma nkhani yotsutsa ndi kutsutsabe.

Kusiyana kwina kowopsya kumaphatikizapo lingaliro la “zilango zachiŵembu.” Chigamulo chaupandu cha kaŵiri chimaletsa chilango cha upandu chambiri pa mlandu umodzimodziwo, koma sichimaletsa chigamulo cha upandu chotsatiridwa ndi chiweruzo cha boma chachiŵembu . Ngakhale chija chimene chimaphatikizapo chilango. Khoti Lapamwamba lapanga kuwunikira kuti ziŵeruzo za boma ndi chilango chaupandu ziri mphamvu zolamulira zopatulidwa, ndipo munthu angaikidwe kwa onse aŵiriwo kaamba ka ka ka kachitidwe kamodzi. Mwachitsanzo, apolisi omasulidwa kuukira m'khoti mu khoti laupandu angayang'anizanebe ndi chiŵeruzo chachigamu cha mu 1983, ndipo chiweruzo chachiŵeruzocho sichingalingaliridwe chachiŵiri pansi pa ngozi yoŵiri.

Kuti amvetsetse kugwirizana kwa zilango za upandu ndi zachiŵeniŵeni, oŵerenga angapite ku [[FL:0] Department of Civil Division ya United States], imene kaŵirikaŵiri imachita ndi milandu yophatikizapo zochitika za panthaŵi imodzi.

Chiyambukiro cha Kupha Mwaŵiri pa Ufulu wa Chiŵeniŵeni

Zonena Zake Zotsatirapo ndi “Kupatulidwa”

Pamene ufulu wachibadwidwe upanga milandu yambiri yokhudzana ndi chochitika chimodzimodzicho, makhoti ayenera kugamulapo kaya kachitidwe kachiŵiriko kaletsedwe ndi ngozi ziŵiri kapena ziphunzitso zina zogwirizana. Ngakhale kuti chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵirizo sichimagwira ntchito mwachindunji ku milandu yachipani , kulingalira kwake kaŵirikaŵiri kumasonkhezera zosankha za kupeka. Zotsatirapo zake zankhanzazo, wopereka mlandu wa boma yemwe wapereka Chigawo cha 1983 amavomereza kuti chigamulo cha boma losaphula kanthu chozikidwa pa mfundo zofananazo zingapeze kuti kachitidwe ka boma kochotsedwa pansi pa jucata, ngakhale ngati chinenezocho sichikabweretsedwa m’khoti. Mfundo zankhanza zimenezi za lamulo lankhanzazo siziyenera kuloledwa kugaŵitsa kachitidwe ka ka kachitidwe ka ka ka kachitidwe ka boma.

M'nkhani ya zigaŵenga zaupandu, ngozi ziŵiri zingapereke malire oposerapo. Tiyerekeze kuti woimbidwa mlandu wa kulakwa kwa upandu chifukwa cha kuswa ufulu wachibadwidwe . Mwachitsanzo, chiwembu chokana nyumba pamaziko a fuko. Kukana sikumaletsa kubwezera kwa boma kaamba ka chiwombolo chapansi pa Fair House Act, chifukwa chakuti lamulo la boma limalingaliridwa kukhala lopatuka. Komabe, ngati boma liyesa kubweretsa mlandu wachiŵiri waupandu wa mlandu wofananawo pambuyo pa mlandu wolakwa, ngozi ziŵiri zingagwire ntchito ndipo mwinamwake kuletsa kuzenga mlandu wachiŵiri. Kumvetsetsa “kulakwa kwachiŵiri kumbuyoku [[FLT:] kuyesa kwa boma kumaonedwa kukhala kofunika kwambiri kwa woweruza ndi wotetezera m'malamulo.

Ziphunzitso Zoyamba Monga Malamulo a Anthu Onse

Pamene kuli kwakuti ngozi ziŵiri zimalamulira milandu ya upandu, dongosolo la chiweruzo lachiŵeniŵeni limagwiritsira ntchito ziphunzitso ziŵiri zoletsa kubwerezabwereza: res jucata (kutsogolera) [1] ndi ndi coltal estopel (maseclusion ) [1]. Ziphunzitso zimenezi zimagwiritsidwa ntchito m'nkhani za ufulu wa anthu kuti zinene kuti zikhale ndi mawu oyenera kukhalapo [1] koma sizinali [1] Kusintha kwa poyamba, kapena kuletsa mfundo zenizeni zimene zinagamulidwa kale.

  • Res judita : Atangoweruza komaliza pa kuyenera kwa ntchito ya boma, zipani zimodzimodzizo (kapena mapulogalamu awo) sizingabweretse mlandu wina wozikidwa pa malonda kapena mabizinesi a . Lamulo limeneli limalimbikitsa anthu kugwirizanitsa zonena zonse zochokera ku chochitika chimodzi, ngakhale ngati zina zachokera ku ziphunzitso zosiyanasiyana za lamulo.
  • CParacal estoppel : Ngakhale ngati zonenazo ziri zosiyana, chenicheni kapena nkhani imene inagamulidwa ndi kugamulidwa m'kachitidwe kapitayo siingaikidwenso mu suti yotsatira pakati pa magulu amodzimodziwo. Chiphunzitso chimenechi kaŵirikaŵiri chimagwiritsiridwa ntchito kumanga oimbidwa mlandu ku zopezedwa kuchokera kwa mpandu woyambirirayo amene akupitirizabe / "chitsanzo, chitsimikiziro cha mphamvu yopambanitsa ingagwiritsiridwe ntchito kukhazikitsa mlandu pa zoyenera zachiŵerengo zotsatira.

Ziphunzitso zimenezi zimagwirizana ndi cholinga cha kuopsa kwa kumaliza koma zingapangitse misampha kwa anthu osachenjera. Mwachitsanzo, munthu wotchuka amene amapanga chilolezo cha boma cha ufulu wa anthu ndi kutaya zabwino zake angaletsedwe kubweretsa chigawo cha boma cha 1983, ngakhale ngati makhoti a boma akanapereka thamo labwino kwambiri. Motero Attorney ayenera kulinganiza mosamalitsa njira yawo yochitira zinthu, polingalira za khoti loyenera kukonza ndi kuphatikizapo mfundo zonse zimene zingachitike m’milandu imodzi.

Kuyambukira Njira Zothetsera Zomwe Zilipo kwa Opeka

Maupandu a kaŵiriwo amasonkhezera njira za kuchiritsa m’nkhani za ufulu wachibadwidwe m’njira ziŵiri zazikulu: mwakuchepetsa kukhoza kwa boma kufuna zilango zambiri, ndi mwa kupangitsa kupezeka kwa chithandizo cha kupha pambuyo pa mlandu waupandu kugamulidwa.

Kuwalanga ndi Kuwalanga Mosiyanasiyana

Monga momwe tanenera kale, kubwezera kwa m’suti yachiŵeniŵeni sikumalingaliridwa kaŵirikaŵiri kukhala “chilango” cha ziwopsezo zoŵirikiza. Komabe, pamene boma lenilenilo libweretsa kachitidwe kopereka chithandizo cha boma pofunafuna chithandizo cha boma . monga ngati kutayikiridwa kwa boma kapena chilango chachiŵeniŵeni pansi pa Chikalata Chachinyengo. Nkhaniyo imakhala yovuta kwambiri. United States v. Halper , 490 U.S 435 (1999), Khoti Lapamwamba linapereka lingaliro lakuti chilango chachiŵerengo chingawononge ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri ngati chinali chosatheka kuchitika. Ngakhale kuti chingakhale chilango chachiŵiri. [FLT.FLD:] [FLT] [FFFFFF:]

Kwa ufulu wa anthu, chiyambukiro chogwira ntchito nchakuti woimbidwa mlandu amene wavomerezedwa kale mwaupandu (m’chitsanzo, mwa kubwezera) anganene kuti mphotho yotsatira ya chilango m’chiyeso chachiŵeniŵeni iri yofanana. Makhoti kaŵirikaŵiri akana chigomeko chimenechi pamene munthu waboma ali munthu wachinsinsi, chifukwa chakuti mawu owopsawo amagwira ntchito kokha ku kachitidwe ka boma. Komabe, makhoti ena a boma agwiritsira ntchito zitetezero za lamulo kapena malamulo a kachitidwe kake kuti apereke kapena kuchepetsa mphotho pamene woimbidwa mlanduyo walandira chilango chaupandu.

Chithandizo Chosawawa ndi Malamulo Omwe Sanawalole

Mbali ina yofunika ndiyo kupezeka kwa chithandizo cha kuletsa mlandu waupandu. Ngati mlandu uchititsa kusudzulidwa, boma lingafunebe lamulo la boma kuletsa kuswa malamulo amtsogolo mwachitsanzo, lamulo la khoti loletsa mwininyumba kuloŵerera m'machitachita aupostriti. Kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri sikumaletsa malamulo a boma oterowo chifukwa chakuti ali oletsa, osabwezera. Mofananamo, lamulo lovomereza loperekedwa m'chiyeneretso cha ufulu wa anthu lingapereke kuyang'anira ndi kupereka zofunika ngakhale pambuyo potsekedwa mlandu waupandu, malinga ngati lamulolo silimaletsa chilango chowonjezereka kaamba ka khalidwe lofananalo.

Machiritso a ufulu wachibadwidwe kaŵirikaŵiri amaphatikizapo ndalama za loya, kuvulazidwa kwa dzina lokha, ndi kuchotseredwa chilango. Palibe ndi chimodzi cha izi chimene chimalingaliridwa kukhala chilango, chotero sichimaikidwa paupandu woŵirikiza. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti ngakhale wopereka chiwombolo cha dzina lokha angapeze chilengezo chachiweruzo chakuti ufulu walamulo unaswedwa, chimene chingagwiritsiridwe ntchito monga chothetsera kulongosola kapena kusintha kwa kachitidwe ka mtsogolo.

Kulekanitsidwa ndi Kumasulira Matanthauzo Alamulo

“ Wopatula Mfumu Yaikulu”

Chimodzi cha zosiyana zotsutsana kwambiri ndi kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri ndicho “chiphunzitso chogaŵanika”. Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, maboma aŵiri (m’chitsanzo, United States ndi boma) angaimbe mlandu munthu kaamba ka mchitidwe umodzimodziwo waupandu popanda kuswa malamulo alamulo a boma, chifukwa chakuti wolamulira aliyense ali ndi chikhutiro chaumwini m’kukhazikitsa malamulo ake. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chimagwira ntchito mofananamo m’nkhani za ufulu wachibadwidwe: munthu angaikidwe m’khoti chifukwa cha upandu wa udani ndiyeno m’khoti wa kuswa malamulo a boma chifukwa cha kuphwanya malamulo a boma, malinga ndi mmene malamulo amanenera milandu yopatulira.

Kupatula kwa kudziimira pawokha kwasulizidwa kukhala kululuza zitetezero zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, koma kumakhala lamulo labwino. Mu 2019, Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikiziranso chiphunzitsocho mu . United States, 139. Ct. 1960 (2029), kutanthauza kuti lamulo la malamulo la kudzikuza lazikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ndi kapangidwe ka dziko. Kwa ufulu wa anthu, zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti khoti la boma la ligamula pa mlandu wa chivomezi silimangirira mlandu wa boma kaamba ka chochitika chimodzimodzi (kapena chonyansitsa). Zotsatira zake zimaphatikizapo kuthekera kwa kutsalira kwa chuma cha ozengedwa ndi kupanga chiwongo chotsutsana.

Pamene “Zomangira”

Nkhani ina yothetsa nkhani ndiyo mfundo imene ngozi imagwirizanitsa ndi upandu. Mwachitsanzo, ngati khoti likana mlandu wa ajuli, kuikidwa pangozi pamene aweruza alumbiro; kuzenga mlandu pa ben, pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira. M'milandu ya ufulu wa anthu yovuta yokhudza kuzenga milandu, nthaŵi ya kuchotsa ikhoza kutsimikizira ngati kuchotsedwa kapena kusakhala ndi tsankhu. Mwachitsanzo, ngati khoti lingachotse mlandu waupandu lisanaloŵetsedwe paupandu, boma lingakhale laufulu kutsutsa woimbidwa mlandu. Koma pambuyo pake, kuchotsa (mopanda chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa procedtural) kukhoza kuchita monga wozenga mlandu wowonjezereka wotsutsa mlandu wosuliza.

Zigamulo zaposachedwapa zakhala zotsutsana ndi chimene chimapanga “kukhululukidwa” mwachitsanzo, pamene ajuli aikidwa pa mlandu wotsatizana pang’ono ndi khoti kusankha kusasintha kuŵerengerako. Malamulo oterowo angayambukire suti zachiŵeniŵeni zotsatirapo, chifukwa chakuti chigamulo chaupandu (kapena chosoŵa) chingakhale ndi ziyambukiro zoletsa zopimira pa nsonga zobisika.

Kugwirizana ndi Malamulo Oyenera

Nkhani zaupandu ziŵiri zimabukanso pansi pa malamulo a boma a ufulu wachibadwidwe. Mwachitsanzo, pansi pa Chigawo 242 cha 18, chimene chimapangitsa kulanda dala ufulu pansi pa mtundu wa lamulo, woimbidwa mlandu wa lamulo la boma lokhala ndi mlandu wa kachitidwe kamodzimodziko angayang'anizanebe ndi mlandu wa boma. Mofananamo, kachitidwe ka ufulu wa anthu pansi pa Chigawo 1983 sikumaletsedwa ndi chigamulo cha boma cha mlandu kapena kukhululukidwa. Komabe, chiyambukiro chotheratu cha chigamulo cha upandu pa suti yachiŵeniŵeni chimachepetsedwa ndi kutsekedwa ndi kuikidwa kwa mlandu waupanduwo.

Kusanthula kosamalitsa kwa ngozi ziŵiri pa nkhani ya ufulu wachibadwidwe kungapezeke mu Magazine a Human Rights , amene nthaŵi ndi nthaŵi amafalitsa nkhani zonena za kuphonya kwa njira zaupandu ndi zoyenera za nzika.

Kusamalira Ufulu wa Anthu

Polingalira za kucholoŵana kwa ziphunzitso za ngozi ziŵiri ndi za kupulupudza, osamalira zoyenera za nzika ayenera kupenda njira yoyenerera yoyang’anira milandu.

Kupenda Zomwe Zikuchitika M’tsogolo

  • Tsimikizirani ngati mlandu wachitika kapena ngati uli woyembekezera mkhalidwe wofananawo.
  • Ganizirani zotsatira zake: Kukhululukidwa, kukhululukidwa, kapena kuchotsedwa ntchito.
  • Onani ngati zopezedwa zenizeni zirizonse zapangidwa mwachindunji m’mlandu waupandu; izi zingagwiritsiridwe ntchito monyansa m’chisuti chachiŵeniŵeni pansi pa kusanthula estol.

Sankhani Mochenjera Mlandu

  • Ngati woweruzayo ali ndi chosankha pakati pa bwalo lamilandu la boma ndi la boma, lingalirani malamulo alamulo a ulamuliro uliwonse. maboma ena ali ndi kudzinenera kololera kokulirapo koswa malamulo kuposa makhoti a boma.
  • Perekani maganizo kuti kaya woimbidwa mlanduyo angapereke mikangano yoŵirikiza kuti alungamitse kuzenga mlandu kwa nthaŵi zambiri, ndipo linganizani mlandu wa boma moyenerera.

Pezani Kudandaula Kochuluka

  • Phatikizanimo zinenezo zonse zothekera za boma ndi boma zochokera ku malonda amodzimodziwo kuti mupeŵe malo osungiramo zigamulo.
  • Ngati nkoyenera, tsutsani ziphunzitso zina zoletsa kulinganiza zinthu (mwachitsanzo, mphamvu yopambanitsa pansi pa Lamulo Lachinayi ndi kuukira pansi pa lamulo la boma).

Kuona Bwino Zowonongeka Zimene Waona

  • Khalani wokonzeka kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo kunena kuti chiwombolo ndicho chilango cha upandu cholingana ndi chilangocho.
  • Talingalirani za kupempha kuti chiwombolo chilichonse chichepetsedwe ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo wapereka kale malipoti a upandu kapena malipiro.

Muzingochita Zinthu Mopupuluma

  • Chitsimikiziro cha upandu usanakhale chingayambitsidwe monga umboni wa maumboni enieni (ngati chikhululukirocho chinali cha kuchita zinthu zofanana ndi zinenezo za boma).
  • Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo wamasulidwa, boma silinganenezenso milandu imodzimodziyo, koma m’poyerayo samamangidwa ndi womasulidwa chifukwa chakuti thayo la umboni nlotsika.

Kwa ochiritsa, Federal Malamulo a Chigawo [1] imapereka makonzedwe a kudziloŵetsamo ndi kugawa, ndipo kukhalabe pa Khoti Lalikulu ndizo zosankha zaupandu zoŵirikiza kaŵiri.

Kumaliza

Maupandu aŵiri amakhalabe chitetezo chachikulu m'malamulo a ku America, koma kufikira kwake pa ufulu wachibadwidwe kumamvedwa bwino ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri kumamvedwa molakwika. Pamene kuli kwakuti mawuwo akugwira ntchito kokha ku milandu yaupandu, malamulo ake a kumaliza ndi kumveka mwa ziphunzitso zotsatizana monga jucata ndi kutsekereza. Ziphunzitso zimenezi zingapereke mphamvu kwa otsutsa ufulu wachibadwidwe (mwa kupereka chiyambukiro chotheratu ku zigamu zaupandu) kapena kuwaika pa malire (mwa malamulo ake oyenera kuperekedwa poyamba).

Kupatula kwa ufulu wa boma, malongosoledwe osintha zinthu a zimene zimapanga “chilango chimodzi,” ndi kusiyana kopitirizabe pakati pa chilango chachiŵeniŵeni ndi chaupandu zonsezo zimatsimikizira kuti ngozi ya kaŵiri idzakhalabe mbali yaikulu ya lamulo. Kwa osamalira ufulu wachibadwidwe, chidziŵitso chozama cha nkhani zimenezi si maphunziro chabe . Nkofunika kupanga njira zopangira njira zothetsera vuto ndi kusungitsa mankhwala okwanira kwa opalamula oswa lamulo. Pamene makhoti akupitirizabe kumasulira malire a ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, kuŵerengera pakati pa mlandu wa upandu ndi kubwezera ufulu wa anthu ku United States kudzaumba mtsogolo kwa ufulu wa anthu wosungika.