Lingaliro la kuphatikiza ndi [1] njira imene Khoti Lapamwamba lagwiritsira ntchito Brill of Rights ku boma kudzera mwa Access Procession of the 14th Amendment . Lidakali limodzi la ziphunzitso zosintha kwambiri m'lamulo la America. Pafupifupi zaka mazana aŵiri, njira ya Khotilo yasintha kwambiri, kusonyeza kusintha kwa malingaliro pa ufulu wa boma, ufulu wa munthu payekha, ndi ntchito ya judicary. Kumvetsetsa mmene nyengo za Supreme Court zachitira ndi kuwonjezera ufulu wa anthu ndi kulinganiza kwa ulamuliro wa boma ndi boma.

M’nthaŵi Yoyambirira ya Khoti Lalikulu (1790s-1930): Nyengo ya Ulamuliro wa Dual

M’zaka makumi oyambirira za republic, Bill of Rights inamvedwa kukhala yogwira ntchito kotheratu ku boma la boma. Chiphunzitso chofala cha uchifumu wa chinakhulupirira kuti maboma ndi boma linali magawo osiyana a ulamuliro, limodzi ndi limodzi lokhala ndi malamulo ake. Bwalo Lapamwamba nthaŵi zonse linakana kupempha maboma kulemekeza chitetezo chondandalitsidwa m'zotsatira khumi zoyambirira.

Barron v. Baltimore (1833): Maziko Oyambitsa Kukana

Nkhani ya Barron v. Baltimore [1] (1833) inakhazikitsa mawu a nyengo yonse ya kukonzanso zinthu. John Barron, mwini malo osungira katundu, anazenga mzinda wa Baltimore chifukwa chowononga katundu wake mwa kuchotsa mitsinje pomanga misewu. Iye anatsutsa kuti mzindawo u anatenga katundu wake popanda kulipira, kuswa Malamulo Oyamba. Woweruza John Marshall, kulemba khoti la ufulu wa onse, anakhulupirira kuti Bill wa ufulu wa boma wokha, osati malamulo. Mpatuko ya Fife , Marshall’s Grief’s Grome , inagamula, “sanena mawu alionse osonyeza kuti iwo apereke ku boma. Mawuwawawa anachokera ku bomalo.

Kusintha kwa Zakumwa ndi Kuweruza Koyamba

Pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni, kuvomerezedwa kwa Demendment yachinayi mu 1868] kuyambitsa chinenero chatsopano chimene chidzakhala chipangizo chogwiritsira ntchito. Chigawo Choyamba chimapereka kuti palibe boma limene “lidzawononga munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira ya lamulo kapena“ kulolera munthu aliyense m’ulamuliro wake kutetezeredwa kwa malamulo mofanana. Ochirikiza anakhulupirira kuti malamulo ameneŵa adzasonkhezera kusamala zoyenera. Komabe Bwalo Lapamwamba kumapeto kwa zaka mazana makumi asanu ndi atatu ndi aŵiri linakhala losakayikira kwambiri. [FL.FL:2] Kunyalanyaza Nyumba za Nyumba za Nyumba za Nyumba [F.FOct3:3], kugawa kwa khoti la Claume, linapereka mwaŵi wa kuŵerenga ufulu wa ku ku kuŵerengedwa kwake, kapena kukhoza kuŵerengedwa kwake kopambana, monga ngati kugawa kwa Khoti la Lango.

Nkhani zonga ngati kutsutsana ndi . New Jersey [FLT :1] (08) inachitiranso fanizo kukana kwa Khoti. Kumeneko, khoti linavomereza kuti ufulu wina ungakhale “wofuna nzeru” ndipo chifukwa chake unatetezeredwa ku boma, koma unakana kuphatikiza mwaŵi wa Kusintha Koyamba pa Ufulu Wawo Wokha. Khotilo linalingalira kuti Mgwirizano wa ASClicle unateteza ufuluwo wokhawo “m’chigamulo cha ufulu, [1] mawu amene akakhala mbali yaikulu ya kusanthula pambuyo pake. Kupyo, unyinji wa ufulu wa Bill unatsala woŵerengeka ku maiko.

Chiphunzitso cha Kusankha Kusintha kwa Magazi (1920s-1960)

Nyengo yamakono ya kuloŵetsedwa inayamba pakati pa zaka za m'ma1920 pamene Khoti Lapamwamba linayamba kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights kutsimikizira maboma pa mlandu ndi mutu. Njira imeneyi, yodziŵika monga yosankha kuphatikiza [1], inalola Khoti kutetezera ufulu weniweni popanda kukakamiza maboma kuvomereza Bill of Rights Reformation yonse.

Gitlow v. New York (1925): Kuyamba kutulutsa

Posinthira pake panafika Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow anapezedwa ndi mlandu pa lamulo laupandu la New York logaŵira mapepala a socialism. Ngakhale kuti Khoti linachirikiza kutsimikiza kwake pa zabwino, linalengeza lamulo lotsutsa: “Pazifuno zamakono tingakhoze ndi kuganiza kuti ufulu wa kulankhula ndi wa kusindikiza . Umene ukutetezedwa ndi Commergament ku Congressting , ndi Congresstion [1] uli pakati pa ufulu waumwini ndi ‘ kutetezeredwa ndi njira yoyenerera ya Decription yochokera ku ku kukwanitsitsa ndi ku United States. Kulingalira kumeneku kunazindikiritsa lamulo loyamba la kukhazikitsa ufulu kudziko. Pamene kulibe chosankha chosintha chigamu cha m'tsogolo, chigamulo sichinatse chigamuke chigamulo cha ufulu wa kumbuyo kwa kuvomereza chigamulo cha ufulu.

Kufutukuka Kowonjezereka: Ma 1930 ndi 1940

Pambuyo pa Gitlow, Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchitobe ufulu wowonjezereka wa Kusintha Koyamba. Near v. Minnesota[FL:1] (1931] (1931) inakhulupirira kuti asanaletse kufalitsa chiletso chokhudza kusindikiza chikalata cha 144th Amendment, kugwiritsa ntchito chiganizo chaulere kutchula. Denge v. Oregon [[FL:3] [1977] adakhazikitsa kuyenera kwa msonkhano, ndi Cantwell v. Connecticut . Connecticut [[FF:] (1940]) anawonjezera njira ya chipembedzo yochitira zinthu zauletsekera. Pofika kumapeto kwa 1930, khotilo lina linapeza kuti chitetezero choyamba cha mfundo za mtendere.

Khotilo linayambanso kufotokoza zoyenera za upandu. Powell v. Alabama[FLT :1] (1932]), mlandu wa “Scottsboro Boys”, khoti linavomereza kuti Centre Proces Claus Claus adafuna maulamuliro kupereka uphungu m'milandu ya imfa kumene woimbidwa mlanduyo sanathe kuchita chitetezo chokwanira. Imeneyi inali njira yapapitapo ku kumanja kwa uphungu, ngakhale kuti inali yokha ku mikhalidwe yapadera. Palko v. Connecticut [1] (197) inafotokoza bwino muyezo za kuyenera kwa osankha: kokha “kudzitetezera m’chiyezero cha ufulu” Ife, kukana kuyesa kuwonjezera chikalata chosinthasinthasintha mawuwo, ngakhale kuti pambuyo pake chikanenso.

Kusintha kwa Bwalo lamilandu la Warren (1953 -1969)

Chigamulo chachikulu cha Justice Earl Warren chinatulutsa kuwonjezeka kodabwitsa kwa kugwirizana. Khoti la Warren linagwiritsira ntchito mwankhanza Chisinthiro cha 14 cha kusandutsa ufulu wa upandu m'dziko lonse, kusintha madongosolo a chiweruzo cha boma. Zigamulo zofunika zimaphatikizapo:

  • Mapp v. Ohio[FL:1] (1961): Kuphatikiza lamulo lachinayi la Kuchotsa Lamulo, kufunikira makhoti a boma kusapereka umboni wopezedwa mwa kufufuza kosakhala kwa lamulo ndi kugwidwa ndi njirinjiri.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Analamulira “mikhalidwe yapadera” kuchokera ku Betts . Brady (1942) ndi kugamula kuti ufulu wachisanu ndi chimodzi wa kupereka uphungu unali wofunika ndi wogwirizana pa milandu yonse yaupandu.
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964): Kuphatikiza mwaŵi wa Kusintha kwa Gawo Loyamba motsutsana ndi kudzisintha, kupambanitsa Twining v. New Jersey.
  • Pointer v. Texas [1] (1965): Anachotsa Lamulo la Sixth Amendment Bridect Claus ku maboma.
  • Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967): Kuphatikiza Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa Chisanu ndi chimodzi ku kuweruza kofulumira.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Kuphatikizapo Kuyenera kwa Sikisi kwa kuzenga mlandu kwa ajuli m'milandu yaikulu, kulongosola “kuwopsa” kukhala mlandu wolangidwa ndi kumangidwa kwa miyezi isanu ndi umodzi.

Pofika kumapeto kwa Warren Court, pafupifupi njira zonse zaupandu zimatetezera pa Bill of Rights [1] ndi kusiyapo mfundo yaikulu ya Fite Amendment ya chigamulo cha ajuli . Njira ya Khotilo inali yozikidwa zolimba mu kusankha kuphatikizapo , kukana Justice Hugo Black kupempha chiwonkhetso chonse (chiganizo chakuti Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa 145 kwagwiritsidwa ntchito Bill of Rights servetait ku maulamulirowo). Mmalomwake, Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito ufulu uliwonse, kufuna kupeza kokha chikalata cha maziko.

Nyengo Yamakono ndi Kusonkhanitsidwa kwa Pafupi ndi Kutha (1960s-Presente)

Pambuyo pa nyengo ya Warren, Makhoti a Burger ndi Rehnquist anasunga kwambiri chitetezocho koma nthaŵi zina anawonjezera mfundozo.

Kuvomereza Lamulo Lachiŵiri la Mpando Wakuti Zinthu Ziyende Bwino

Kwa zaka makumi ambiri, Khoti Lapamwamba silinalembe ngati Lamulo Lachiŵiri lakusunga ndi kunyamula zida zina ku maiko. Pambuyo pa Dialief of Columbia v. Heller (2008) adazindikira munthu aliyense kuyenera kwa mwini m'mabwalo, funso linabuka mwamsanga kaamba ka malamulo a boma ndi a kumaloko. [Mu [FLT:]] [Mcnald v. Chicago ] (2010), kuchuluka kwa Bwalo lakumbukiro lakumbukiridwa ndi kuikidwa ndi kuikidwa kwabwino kwa Claus Ceaste, chifukwa cha kuyenera kwa kudzipha kwa dziko. Chilungamo cha Chilungamo chinagwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi kupenda kosiyana kwa ufulu wa ufulu. Chilungamo chinagwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi kupendanso kuchotsamo ufulu wambiri, chomwe chinali kuvomerezedwa ndi kulongosola moyenerera ndi kuvomereza ndi kuweruza koyenera kwa Jusma.

Kuvomereza Kusintha kwa Malamulo Asanu ndi Atatu

Chitetezero cha Eighth Amendment chinaikidwa kuchiyambi kwa Robinson v. California (1962), chimene chinachotsa lamulo la California lakupanga kumwerekera ndi mankhwala kukhala chiŵembu chankhanza ndi chachilendo ku chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo pansi pa Kusintha kwa Zabwino kwa Zachilengedwe. Posachedwapa, mu [FLT:] Timbs v. Indiana[FL:3] (2013]), Khoti linaphatikiza lamulo la Jearth Amendment’s Reconfred Reconflate Reconsolee, kunyamula Claus ndi kukhazikitsa chitetezero cha Claus ndi chiwonjezeko cha Ginburg mu mbiri yosaipira ya chigamulo. Ngati chigamulo chopanda chigamulo, chikayi cha Ginsburg chikanei, chikayikirenicho chomveka chomveka bwino cha chija cha chigamumo cha chigamulo, chika, chikanetso chomveka chokwanira chachi, chikanenso chachi, chikanenso cha chika.

Mkhalidwe Wamakono: Kodi Nchiyani Chosaloŵetsedwamo?

Kufikira lerolino, unyinji wa malamulo a ufulu wachibadwidwe aikidwa ku mabomawo.

  • Mpambo Woyamba: Malamulo onse aakulu (mapeyi, osindikiza, msonkhano, kupempha, kulimbitsa thupi kwaulere, kukhazikitsa) amaphatikizidwa kotheratu.
  • [[MLT:0] Mpambo wosinthasintha: Wophatikizidwa ndi McDonald (2010).
  • Mpambo wa Malamulo wokonzedwanso: Osaphatikizidwa; palibe mlandu wa khoti Lapamwamba wonena mwachindunji za kachitidwe ka boma. Makhoti ang'onoang’ono agaŵanika, koma nkhaniyo imabuka mwakamodzikamodzi.
  • Demendment: yophatikizidwa kotheratu, kuphatikizapo lamulo lopatula.
  • Fith Amendment: Malamulo ambiri ophatikizidwa kusiyapo chiyeneretso chachikulu cha upo wa ajuli ( Hurtado v. California, 1884], kalelo lamulo labwino). Kudziloŵetsa, kuopsa koŵirikiza, njira yoyenerera, ndi kutenga zonse zimaphatikizidwa.
  • Mpambo wa Thupi: Ufulu wonse (kuzenga mlandu ndi mlandu wa anthu onse, juli yopanda tsankho, chidziŵitso cha milandu, kutsutsana, kukakamiza, uphungu) amaloŵetsedwamo.
  • Demendment yachisanu ndi chiwiri: Ufulu wa kuweruza milandu ya boma suloŵetsedwa m'bungwe. Khoti silinagwiritse ntchito ku maboma, ndipo mawu a chisinthiko mwa iwo eni amatchula “malamulo amodzi” popanda kutchula makhoti a boma. Maboma ambiri ali ndi ufulu wawo woweruza milandu ya boma.
  • [[FLT: 0] Kusintha kwa mlingo: Wankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo ( Robinson 1962]) ndi zoposera zopambanitsa (] Throughs [[FLT:] 2019] zaphatikizidwa. Mphotho yopambanitsa sinagwirizanitsidwa, ngakhale kuti makhoti angapo aang'ono amati ndizo.
  • [[MML:0] Ndandanda ndi Malamulo Achisanu: [[[FL:1] Osaphatikizidwa; kusintha kumeneku ndiko kumanga mmalo mwa ufulu wa munthu.

Nkhani Zazikulu Zotsutsana ndi Matanthauzo

M'mbiri yonse ya kuphatikiza, ziphunzitso zazikulu ziŵiri zopikisana zaumba kulingalira kwachiweruzo: kusankha kuphatikizidwa [[FLT :1] (kufikira kwakukulu) ndi kuwonjezera ndi kuphatikiza [mapangano] (kuvomerezedwa kwakukulu ndi Chilungamo Choyera koma chosatengedwa). Chiweruzo Frankfur, mosiyana ndi , chinasiyidwa kwambiri pambuyo pa kusintha kwa mabwalo a zinthu zamakono. Malamulo oyenerera amakono amakhudzana ndi ufulu wa zinthu. Nthaŵi zina njira imeneyi imatchedwa [[FLT:] [FLT] [FFF:5] [5] [4] [4]

Nkhani ina yosatha imakhudza njira yodziŵira maziko. Oweruza ena, makamaka Scalia ndi Thomas, agogomezera kupenda mbiri yakale za ufulu umene unalingaliridwa kukhala wofunika mu 1868 pamene Mendustry ya 145 anavomerezedwa. Ena, monga Jasitisi Breyer, agwirizana ndi njira yowonjezereka yosinthira, yomwe tsopano imasonyeza miyezo yamakono ya ulemu. Kulimbana pakati pa munthu woyamba ndi wamoyo kukupitiriza kufalitsa mikangano lerolino.

Zimene Zikugwirizana ndi Phunziro Lowonjezereka

Kumaliza: Choloŵa Chomadza cha Kulambira Konyenga

Supreme Court inayamba ulendo wake woyambirira kukana kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa boma kulikonse kwa Bill of Rights mpaka kumaliza kumene tikuwona lerolino ikuimira chimodzi cha masinthidwe aakulu kwambiri m'lamulo la America. Mwakusankha, khoti latsimikizira kuti ufulu wapamwamba , ufulu wa kulankhula, kuyesayesa, kuyenera kwa kunyamula zida, kutetezera kutetezera kwa boma kwankhanza ndi chilango chankhanza . Makhoti amtsogolo angawonjezerere ku Aamereka onse mosasamala kanthu za dziko limene amakhala. Pamene kuli kwakuti malamulo angapo a suloŵabe (mwapadera a khoti lalikulu loweruza milandu ndi kuweruza mlandu wa alamulo), chikhoterero chonsecho chakhala kutetezera kwa dziko lonse la Bill of Rights Rights. Makhoti awonjezera kapena kuwonjezera kuletsa kapena kuwonjezera malamulo a chiphunzitso, makamaka m'zasayansi, ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo a zachikhalidwe la anthu.