Maziko a Mafuko a Amereka

Kugawa kwa ulamuliro pakati pa boma la dziko ndi maboma ndiko mbali yolongosola dongosolo la ndale zadziko la United States. Malamulo ameneŵa, odziŵika monga a boma, amapanga ulamuliro wamitundu iŵiri pamene chigawo chilichonse cha boma chili ndi ulamuliro wake, macheke, ndi mathayo. Kumvetsetsa kulinganiza kumeneku nkofunika osati kokha kwa ophunzira a lamulo lalamulo komanso kwa aliyense amene akufuna kuzindikira mmene malamulo a zamaphunziro, zaumoyo, ndi chisungiko cha anthu zimayendera. Malamulo a U.S., monga momwe amamasulira zaka mazana aŵiri za mbiri ndi jurisprance, amapereka mapulani a unansi wocholoŵana umenewu.

Lingaliro la Ulamuliro Waumodzi

Uchifumu wa Dual umafotokoza njira imene maboma aŵiri osiyana amagwiritsira ntchito ulamuliro pa gawo limodzi la malo ndi anthu. Mu United States, boma la boma lili ndi mphamvu zochepera, zoŵerengedwa, pamene maboma akukhala ndi ulamuliro wokulira, wogaŵikana. Kakonzedwe kameneka kanapangidwa mwadala, kutetezera ufulu mwa kugawa mphamvu ndi kuletsa wolamulira aliyense kukhala wolamulira. Chotulukapo ndicho kupsinjika kwakukulu kumene kwakhalapo chiyambire kukhazikitsidwa.

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale: Kuchokera pa Kugwirizana ndi Kuloŵa m’Bungwe la Malamulo

Opanga maulamula a mu 1787 anatsimikizira kuti boma lapakati lofooka silingathe kuyang'anira bwino chitetezo cha dziko, malonda, kapena maunansi achilendo. Convention ya Malamulo ya 1787 inafuna kukhazikitsa boma lolimba pamene ikusunga ufulu wa maboma. Chothetsera chinali njira ya mphamvu zogawikana ndi zogawikana. Chochititsa chachikulucho chinkalolera kulolera molakwa (malamulo a boma), ndi magawo atatu-fansi osintha. Alekizanda, Hamilk, James Magno, ndi John Jay adafotokoza nzeru zakuyankhulitsa mu [FL:] Fateralist Mapepala [FF1:], makamaka mu [FFFOUT]: [3]

Malamulowo anapatsa boma la United States mphamvu zenizeni (m’njira yakuti, kukhazikitsa ndalama, kuyendetsa malonda a mayiko, kulengeza nkhondo) ndipo anasungidwa ku mayiko ena onse. Mtengo wa Tenth Amendment, wovomerezedwa mu 1791, anatsimikizira chigawo chimenechi kuti: “Maulamuliro amene sanapatsidwe ku United States ndi Malamulo a boma, kapena oletsedwa ndi boma, amasungidwa ku United States, kapena kwa anthu.

Ulamuliro Waumodzi Uli Pantchito: Dongosolo la Olamulira Opatukana

M'lamulo la America, mawu akuti “ulamuliro wa pakati pa anthu” akuonekeranso m'malamulo aupandu. Malamulo a Jeopardy Claus a Fite Amendment amaletsa munthu kuimbidwa mlandu kaŵiri pa mlandu umodzi ndi mfumu imodzi. Komabe, chifukwa chakuti boma ndi boma lililonse ndi maulamuliro opatukana, onse aŵiri angapereke mlandu wa munthu wina wa kachitidwe kamodzimodziko ngati aswa malamulo onse aŵiri a boma. Mwachitsanzo, apolisi amene amagwiritsira ntchito mphamvu kwambiri angayang'anizane ndi zinenezo za boma ndi kupha anthu popanda kuchititsa ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chavomerezedwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba m'milandu yonga [[FLD: 0]. Alabama v [FLD:] [1985] ndipo chigamu cha chigamu cha chilungamo cha boma chotsutsa.

Maulamuliro Aakulu: Opanda Mphamvu, Ogwiritsiridwa Ntchito, ndi Obadwa Nawo

Kumvetsetsa magulu ameneŵa nkofunika kuti timvetsetse malire a ntchito ya dzikolo.

Mphamvu Zokhalako

Maulamuliro oikidwa ndiwo amene andandalikidwa bwino m’Bungwe la Malamulo, makamaka m’Chigawo I, Chigawo 8. Chigawo cha 8.

  • Mphamvu ya [[FLT: 0] msonkho [1] [1] ndi kuwonongera ubwino wa onse.
  • Mphamvu ya ['FLT: 0] imagwira ntchito pakati pa state ndi malonda achilendo [[FLT: 1].
  • Mphamvu ya [[MTL: 0] yolengeza nkhondo [ ndi kukweza magulu ankhondo.
  • Mphamvu ya ndalama [[ML: 0] yomangira ndalama ndi kulamulira phindu lake.
  • Mphamvu yokhazikitsa maofesi a positi ofesi ndi misewu.
  • Ufulu wopereka malamulo oyenera kupatsidwa ndi olemba mabuku.

Maulamuliro ameneŵa, ngakhale kuti ali ndi malire, amasuliridwa mokulira. Commerce Claus, makamaka, wakhala malo omenyera kulongosola kufikira kwa ulamuliro wa boma. Kuchokera ku Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) kwa [FLT]] Wickard v. Filburn . ] [42]) ku [United States] v. Lopez (1995] , Bwalo lakhala ndi oslated pakati pa mabukhu ndi oletsa.

Mphamvu Zogwiritsiridwa Ntchito ndi Zofunika ndi Zoyenera za Claus

Chigawo chomaliza cha Mfundo I, Chigawo 8 chimapatsa mphamvu “kupanga Malamulo onse amene adzakhala ofunika ndi oyenerera kuchotsa Maulamuliro otchulidwawo.” Mawu ameneŵa, odziŵika monga M’pofunika ndi Muyambo Claus (kapena Ellastic Claus), amalola Nyumba za Malamulo zimene zavomerezedwa ndi maulamuliro otchulidwa. Nkhani yachiŵiri ndi [[FL:0] [MCulloch v. Maryland [1] , kumene Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall ananena motchuka kuti “mphamvu ya kukhoma msonkho imaphatikizapo mphamvu ya kuwononga ndi kuti Nyumba za malamulo zingatanthauze kukwaniritsa mfundo zalamulo. Chigamulo chimenechi chakhazikitsa chigamu chachikulu cha mphamvu za kukhazikitsa, ndi kukhazikitsanso zigwirizano za dziko.

Mphamvu Zimene Anazibadwa Nazo

Maulamuliro achibadwa ndi aja a dziko la ufumu uliwonse, ngakhale ngati sanatchulidwe mwachindunji m'Malamulo. Maulamuliro ameneŵa amagwirizana kwambiri ndi nkhani zachilendo ndi chisungiko cha dziko, kuphatikizapo mphamvu ya kupeza gawo, zoyendera limodzi, ndi kutetezera dziko. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira mphamvu zachibadwa m'nkhani zonga United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp . (1936), zimene zinkakhulupirira kuti boma la boma la dzikolo lili ndi “mphamvu zimene zimachokera ku chenicheni chakuti United States ndilo dziko lokhala ndi ufulu pakati pa mitundu.

Boma: Osungika, Apolisi, ndi Ogwirizana

Demendment ya khumi ndilo maziko a lamulo kaamba ka ulamuliro wa boma. Kupyola pa maulamuliro osungidwa, maboma amagwiritsira ntchito mphamvu za boma zotakata [[FLT: 0] [1] . Udindo wachibadwa wa kutetezera thanzi, chisungiko, makhalidwe, ndi ubwino wa nzika zawo. Zimenezi zimaphatikizapo malamulo a upandu, thanzi labwino la anthu, kugwiritsira ntchito malo, ndi kugulitsa.

Zitsanzo za Maulamuliro Adziko Amwambo

  • Kuphunzitsa: Madziko amakhazikitsa miyezo ya madesi a ndandanda ya maphunziro, kusungitsa masukulu a boma, ndi kuyang'anira zikalata zauphunzitsi.
  • transport: Madziko amamanga ndi kukonza misewu, kulembetsa galimoto, ndi ma laisensi a dalaivala.
  • Kusamalira: United States laisensi ya zamankhwala, kuyang'anira misika ya inshuwalansi, ndi kuyendetsa maprogramu a Medicaid.
  • Chilamulo cha Banja: [[FLT:] Maboma amalamulira ukwati, chisudzulo, kusunga ana, ndi kulera ana.
  • Lamulo lachigamulo: Unyinji wa milandu ya upandu umachitika pansi pa lamulo la boma.
  • Zisankho: Maboma amaika zisankho za boma, boma, ndi malo mkati mwa malamulo.

Mphamvu Zogwirizana: Udindo Wogawana

Maboma a boma ndi a boma omwe angagwiritsire ntchito mphamvu zina panthaŵi imodzi.

  • Mphamvu ya msonkho (maiko sangakhoze kukhoma ziŵiya za boma popanda chivomerezo).
  • Mphamvu ya kubwereka ndalama.
  • Mphamvu yokhazikitsa makhoti.
  • Mphamvu ya kukhazikitsa mabanki ndi makampani.
  • Mphamvu yokhazikitsa ndi kusungitsa malamulo mwachisawawa.

Pamene malamulo a boma ndi a boma akutsutsana, Supremacy Claus (Article VI, Claus 2) imalamula lamulo la bomalo kupezeka. Chiphunzitso chimenechi cha [[FLT: 0]] chikhoza kufotokozedwa (Konkirer akunena momvekera bwino kuti lamulo la boma limachotsa lamulo la boma) kapena chitanthauza (pamene lamulo la boma limasokoneza zolinga za boma kapena limatenga munda wonse).

Kudziwonetsa Wotchuka ndi Kupatulidwa

Supremacke ikhazikitsa Konsichushoni, malamulo a boma anapanga malamulo a ilo, ndipo mapangano monga “Chilamulo chapamwamba cha Dziko.” Zimenezi sizimathetsa lamulo la boma koma zimalichepetsa. Pamene mkangano ubuka, makhoti ayenera kugamulapo ngati lamulo la boma laperekedwa. Khoti Lapamwamba lapanga madongosolo angapo:

  • Kutsegulidwa: Congress imalongosola cholinga chake cha kuchotsa lamulo la mkhalidwe m'lamulo.
  • Kuwomboledwa: Occurs pamene lamulo la boma lifalikira kotero kuti “likhala munda,” kusasiya malo kaamba ka kachitidwe ka boma (chipulumutso cha m’munda), kapena pamene lamulo la boma likhala chopinga ku zifuno ndi zolinga za boma (kuwomboledwa).

Chitsanzo chotchuka ndicho Arizona v. United States[FLT :1] (202), kumene Khoti linakantha malamulo angapo a ku S.B. 1070 a kusamukira kudziko chifukwa chakuti lamulo la boma lokhudza kusamuka linatenga munda ndi makonzedwe a boma otsutsana ndi zoikizira za boma. Mosiyana, mu WYTH v. Levine (2009), Khoti linakana chivomerezo cha kuvomerezedwa kwa dzina la mankhwala osokoneza bongo loperekedwa ku boma ku chigamu, kugogomezera kuti kuikidwa pasadadetsedwa sikuli kopepuka.

Kufufuza za Vuto la M’dziko

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Khotilo linavomereza kuti Maryland sakakhoma msonkho ku Banki Yachiŵiri ya United States chifukwa “mphamvu ya kukhoma msonkho imaloŵetsapo mphamvu ya kuwononga, ndipo maboma sangadodometse ntchito za boma zovomerezedwa ndi boma.
  • Gibbons v Ogden (1824): Khoti linamasulira mokulirapo kuti “kuchuluka kwa maiko angapo” kuphatikizapo kuyendetsa, kugwetsa ngalawa yapamadzi ya New York ndi kutsimikizira ulamuliro wa boma pa malonda a maiko.
  • United States v. Lopez (1995): Koyamba m'zaka pafupifupi zisanu ndi chimodzi, khoti linaika ulamuliro wa Congress Congress Claus mwa kugwiritsa ntchito lamulo la Gun-Free School Communies Act, kugamula kuti kunyamula mfuti m'chigawo cha sukulu sikunayambukire malonda a mayiko.
  • NFIB v. Sebelius (202): Khotilo linachirikiza lamulo la munthu aliyense monga kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu yokhometsa msonkho koma linagonjetsa makonzedwe ofuna maboma kufutukula Medicaid monga chitsenderezo cha ulamuliro wa boma.
  • [[NT.0] Murphy v. NCAA (2018): Khotilo linagonjetsa Professional and AmetersSport Proviction Act (PASPA), likumati linaswa chiphunzitso chotsutsa lamulo la lamulo mwa kuletsa maboma kutchova juga. Chigamulo chimenechi chinalimbikitsa lamulo lakuti boma la boma silingalamulire malamulo a boma a genic.

Nkhani za M’tsogolo za Mafuko

Malo amakono osonyeza kusandulika kwa ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri ziŵiri zikupitirizabe.

Kusamalira Thanzi ndi Kuchitapo Kanthu Kosavuta

, Bwalo la ACA la Madekid linapanga chitsanzo chatsopano. NFIB v. Sebelius, khoti linagamula kuti Congress sakanawopseza kuchotsa [ zonse za boma za MEDicaid ngati maboma akana kufutukuka. Komabe, zimene zikufuna kufutukulidwa zingalandire ndalama zowonjezereka. Lerolino, ntchito yofutukulidwa ndi maiko osakhala apamwamba ilipo, kuchititsa kuchotsa zinthu. Kugwirizana kwa boma kogwirizana kumeneku kuphatikizapo ndi kuletsa mavuto pa malamulo.

Kusamuka ndi Kukakamizidwa kwa Boma

Kusungitsa kugwirizanitsa kuli thayo la boma, koma maboma ayesa kuthandiza kapena kusokoneza. Malamulo onga ngati Arizona’s S.B. 1070 ndi Texas atsutsidwa. Khoti Lalikulu mu ] Arizonga ndi. United States anachirikiza ulamuliro wa boma koma chipinda cha boma cha kugwirizana m'madera ena (m’mphindi, kutchula maulamuliro a boma ponena za kusamutsidwa kwa alendo). Posachedwapa, mikangano pa “mizinda ya Antactuary [1] ndi ziletso za boma pa kusungitsa kusamuka kwa dziko la United States zapitirizabe kuyesa malire a boma. Otsutsa olamulira, chiphunzitso chochokera m'makedwe mu [FT:]. [2] New York: [3]

Kusintha Kwachilengedwe ndi Ulamuliro wa Boma

Maboma kaŵirikaŵiri amagwira ntchito monga malaboratoritala a kufufuza za malo okhala. Mwachitsanzo, California, yakhazikitsa miyezo yokhwima ya galimoto yotulutsa galimoto kuposa lamulo la boma pansi pa Decrase Air Act waiver. Boma la Trump linayesa kuchotsa kuti kasupe, ndi ma Bden adabweza. [[FL:0] Massachusetts v. EPA[FLT] [2007] [2007], Khoti linanena kuti EPA inali ndi ulamuliro wa kulamulira mpweya wotentha pansi pa Coopera Act. United States yabweretsanso chidani chapoyera chokhudza makampani a mphamvu za kusintha kwa nyengo, ndipo Khoti Lapamwamba lalimbana ndi kudandaula ngati zimenezi ndi lamulo lolamulira. Nkhani yosatha. [FLD] [F]

Kuvomerezedwa kwa Malamulo ndi Lamulo la Mafuko

Ngakhale kuti boma limaika chisankho cha cha mbanje monga Shedynal , chiŵerengero chomakulakula cha mayiko alamulo zamankhwala ndi maseŵera. Boma la boma laletsa kwambiri kuweruza boma ndi kukhazikitsa ntchito (pansi pa Cole Memoness ndi chitsogozo chotsatira), koma malo alamulo akhalabe osalimba. Rohrabacher-farmendment laletsa Dipatimenti ya Chiweruzo kuwonongetsa ndalama za boma kusokoneza malamulo a chamba, koma liyenera kukonzedwanso chaka chilichonse. Malowawa amasonyeza bwino kwambiri kusiyana pakati pa chiletso ndi boma ndi chilo cha boma.

Ufulu Wobalanso ndi Kudya Ana

Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu ndi kubwezera nkhani ya malamulo ochotsa mimba ku maboma. Izi zachititsa kuti malo ena agaŵanike kwambiri: maboma akhazikitsa pafupifupi mayeso, pamene ena akhazikitsa zitetezero zazikulu. Kulimbana kwa pakati pa anthu (m.g., pa mankhwala ochotsa mimba kudzera m'maleya ndi ulendo) kwadzutsanso mafunso onena za malire a boma. Zimenezi zayambitsa magawo ogaŵanitsidwa kwambiri. Maboma ena akhazikitsa chiletso, ndi malo a Immakee. [Flate:]

Chiphunzitso Chotsutsa Lamulo

Chiyeso chachikulu pa mphamvu ya boma ndi chiphunzitso chotsutsa malamulo: boma la boma silingakakamize kukhazikitsa kapena kukhazikitsa maprogramu a boma. Lamulo limeneli linakhazikitsidwa mu New York v. United States, kumene khoti linagwetsa lamulo loletsa lamulo lofuna kuti boma likhale ndi malo aulemu otsika. Linaikidwanso m'malamulo a Primpz v. United States [1997]), limene linawononga makonzedwe a Brady Handgan Declation Develoption (kuletsa chiwawa Chilamulo ndi malamulo a m'dzikolo kuti liyang'anire. Chiphunzitso cha bomacho kuyang'anira boma ndi kuyang'anira ulamuliro wa boma ndi kusungitsa ulemu. Chilungamo chandale zadziko cha boma la akuluakulu a boma ndi ulamuliro. Komabe, chikhoza kuwonjezera chikalata choperekedwa kwa zaka zambiri.

Kugwirizana kwa Mafonsetialism ndi Grants-in-Aid

Pambuyo pa nkhondo, maboma a boma ndi a boma mobwerezabwereza [[FLT: 0] amagwira ntchito. Kudzera m'dongosolo la ndalama zoperekedwa ndi mapulogalamu a boma ndi a mgwirizano. Ndalama zimayendera ku magawo a misewu, maphunziro (m., Umutwe Imapereka), thanzi la anthu (m., MED), ndi chithanzi chatsoka. Pobwerera, amavomereza kutsatira miyezo ina ya boma. Khoti logwirizanali, nthaŵi zina limatchedwa “kupeputsa-kake, . Kutsutsa kuti boma limaloleza mphamvu ya ulamuliro kupyola mphamvu zake. Ngakhale kuti pali njira ina yothandiza kuyang'anira zinthu za dziko. Ochirikiza kuyang'anira zinthu za boma, amavomereza kuti likhale njira yothandiza kukambirana ndi boma. Ogwirizanawo akuona monga njira yothandiza poyang'anira ntchito. Khoti la Suptmon, monga momwe amaikira malire ena mu: [Dictivel: [5] [4]

Mapeto: Kusagwirizana Kosatha kwa Ulamuliro wa Umodzi

Unansi pakati pa maulamuliro a boma ndi boma sumakhala wokhazikika; umasintha ndi zinthu zofunika za ndale zadziko za mbadwo uliwonse ndi mafotokozedwe a chiweruzo. Opanga maulake adapanga dongosolo la ulamuliro wamitundu iŵiri kutetezera ufulu ndi kuchirikiza ulamuliro wogwira ntchito, komanso adapanganso dongosolo limene limaitanira kukambirana ndi mikangano yosatha. Kuyambira pa nkhondo zoyambirira za National Bank ku makani a zaumoyo, kusamuka, ndi kuchotsa mimba, kulingana kwa ulamuliro kumakhalabe. Kumvetsetsa maziko alamulo ndi kuchirikiza mphamvu, Sunth Amereka, Sumety Claus Express, ndi kutsutsa chiphunzitso cha kuletsa ziŵitso zaumoyo kwa anthu. Monga momwenso kusintha kwa anthu, mizera pakati pa zimene zili za dziko ndi zimene zikukhala ndi maiko.

Kuti muŵerenge mowonjezereka, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Chikomyunizimu [1] kaamba ka kusanthula kodalirika kwa chigawo chilichonse, . [FLT] Confect Reformation Institute formation Information [FLT:] [[FLT]], ndi malingaliro a Khoti Lapamwamba osonyezedwa pamwambapo kudzera [[FLT:] [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT]]