Table of Contents
Kusintha Kolingana Ufulu: Nkhondo Yolimbana ndi Kulingana kwa Malamulo kwa Zaka Zana
Aumetic Rights Amereka (ERA) imaimira chimodzi cha mfundo zokhalitsa ndi zotsutsana kwambiri m'mbiri ya malamulo a America. Choyamba chinayambitsidwa mu 1923, ulendo wake kudutsa ndale ndi malamulo ukuvumbula kulimbana kwakukulu ndi kosalekeza kwa ufanane wa amuna ndi akazi ku United States. Kumvetsa tanthauzo la ERA m'mbiri yonse kuli kofunika kumvetsetsa chisinthiko cha kugonana ndi ntchito yosatha imene ikupitirizabe.
Maziko a Lamulo la Ufulu Woyenera
Maziko a ERA ali m'gulu la akazi a zaka 20 la ufulu wachibadwidwe, limene linali litapambana posachedwapa ndi kupekedwa kwa njira ya 19 Demendment mu 1920, kupatsa akazi ufulu wosankha. Komabe mabuku anazindikira kuti ufulu wosankha wokha sungawononge dongosolo lalikulu la tsankho lalamulo ndi la chikhalidwe limene linaletsa moyo wa akazi. Alice Paul, yemwe anali katswiri wa gulu la Britain loyendetsa zinthu zokometsera ndi woyambitsa National Women’s Party, anatsogolera kuyesayesa kwa kupanga chikalata chotsimikizira kuti ufulu wofananawo ulipo pansi pa lamulo la kugonana.
Mawu oyambirira, oyambitsidwa mu Msonkhano mu 1923, anali olunjika modabwitsa: “Kulingana kwa ufulu pansi pa lamulo sikudzakanidwa kapena kumangidwa ndi United States kapena ndi Boma lirilonse chifukwa cha kugonana. Mawu osavuta koma okhwima ameneŵa anatsutsa lamulo lililonse, malamulo, ndi kachitidwe kamene kanachitira amuna ndi akazi mosiyana.
Kutsutsa ndi Kusagwirizana kwa Anthu
Kuyambira pachiyambi, ERA inayang'anizana ndi chitsutso champhamvu . osati kokha kuchokera ku magulu otsutsa akazi komanso kuchokera ku gulu la ufulu wa akazi. Ochirikiza kuwonjezereka ndi antchito anaopa kuti kusinthako kudzachotsa malamulo otetezera antchito omwe adamenyedwa mkati mwa Nyengo Yopita Patsogolo. Malamulo ameneŵa anachepetsa maola a akazi ogwira ntchito, oletsa ntchito usiku, ndi kuika miyezo ya akazi mwachindunji. Ochirikiza ameneŵa anatsutsa kuti ERA adzasiya akazi osavuta kudyeredwa mwankhanza m'dongosolo lolamulidwabe ndi mphamvu yachimuna. Zimenezi zinagaŵana pakati pa "'. [FLT:] ndi [FL:] [FOLD]
Mkupiti Wapakati: Kupsa Mwapang’onopang’ono
Kwa zaka pafupifupi makumi asanu pambuyo pa kuyambitsidwa kwake, ERA inavutika m'makomiti audindo . Inachotsedwanso mbali iriyonse, koma mkhalidwe wa ndale zadziko sunakhale woyenerera kaamba ka kusintha kwa malamulo m'maunansi a amuna ndi akazi. Kulephera kwa Great Depression, Nkhondo Yadziko II, ndi kugogomezera kwa nkhondo yapambuyo kwa banja kunasunga kubwezeredwa kwa chitsutso cha lamulo. Komabe, National Women’s Party inapitirizabe kupempha alendo, ndipo kachikwama kakang’ono koma kodzipereka ka ochirikiza ufulu wa ERA anasunga lotopeka la ERA ali moyo.
Chofalitsidwa cha Betty Friedan Mystique ya Feminine [1] [[FLT :2] mu 1963 ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa bungwe la National Organization for Akazi (NOW) mu 1966 inaloŵetsa mphamvu yatsopano m'gululo. Tsopano inachititsa ERA imodzi ya zofuna zake zazikulu, ndi kagulu katsopano ka ka ka ka kachitidwe ka ka ka ka kamangidwe ka . Kumasuka kwa akazi kumapeto kwa 1960 ndi kuchiyambiyambi kwa 1970 kulenga malo andale ovomereza kwambiri lingaliro la kulingana kwa lamulo.
Chozizwitsa cha 1972: Kupita kwa Nyumba ya Malamulo
Mu March 1972, nyumba zonse ziŵiri za Congress zinavomereza ERA yokhala ndi ma bipartisan aakulu kwambiri . "354" mpaka 23 m'Nyumba ndi 84 mpaka 8 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo. Kukonzanso kunapita ku maboma kukafuna kugwirizanitsa, ndi nthaŵi ya zaka zisanu ndi ziŵiri yoikidwa ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo. Poyamba, laimu linayenda mofulumira. Pasanathe chaka, 30 mwa maboma 38 ofunikirawo anavotera kuti inde. Kulimba mtima kunali kokwera; ambiri ananeneratu kuti ERA idzakhala Demetrisement (kusintha kwa 27) podzafika 1975. Komabe, kusintha kwamphamvu kotsutsana ndi kusintha kunali kuyambika kale.
Gulu Lolimbana ndi ERA: Chitsutso ndi Kukana
Mkupiti wolimbana ndi ERA unatsogozedwa ndi Phyllis Schlafly, wochirikiza mwambo wa kusinthika amene anakhazikitsa chiwopsezo cha kutetezera makhalidwe abanja, mwaŵi wa akazi (monga ngati kukhala ndi ufulu ndi kusalowa m’gulu lankhondo), ndi kupatulika kwa nyumba yake. Gulu lake, Sma, STARA, linatsutsa kuti kukonza zinthu kukavulaza akazi mwa kuwakakamiza kugwira ntchito, kuchotsa chitetezo m’chisudzulo ndi m'malo osungira, ndi kulamula akazi kuti agwire ntchito zankhondo.
Nkhani Zazikulu za Chitsutsocho
- Malo a malamulo otetezera: Otsutsa ananena kuti ERA akachotsa malamulo amene amapereka chitetezo chapadera kwa akazi kuntchito, monga ngati kupuma ndi kulephera kwa ola lathunthu.
- Utumiki wa kumanga: Chiyembekezo cha akazi okakamizidwa ndi kukakamizidwa kumenya nkhondo chinali njira yamphamvu yoopseza imene inamveka m'nyengo ya Nkhondo Yamawu.
- Malo a Banja: ambiri anawopa ERA ikasokoneza ntchito zamwambo, kutsogolera ku zipinda zosambira za kugonana, ukwati wa kugonana (woyambirira ku mkangano wapatsogolo), ndi kuchirikiza kuchotsa mimba kwa boma.
- Zoyenera za State: Adani ena anatsutsa ERA kuimira boma lochenjeredwa, kuswa ufulu wa maboma wa kulinganiza maunansi a panyumba.
Stop ERA inatsimikizira kukhala yogwira ntchito. Pambuyo pa 1973, kutsazikana kwa mareti kunayamba kuchepa kwambiri. Maboma anayamba kuchepetsa kapena kugonjetsa kukonzedwa kwa zinthu. Pofika pa nthaŵi yoyambirira ya March 22, 1979, maboma 35 okha ndiwo adavomereza [1] Opereŵera atatu mwa atatu aakulu ofunikira. Mabungwe anafutukula malirewo mpaka 1982, koma palibe maboma ena amene anavomereza, ndipo ERA mwalamulo anafupikitsidwa.
Zithunzi Zofunika Zimene Zinaumba Gulu la ERA
Kuti mumvetse bwino ERA muyenera kuzindikira anthu amene anaichirikiza kapena kuitsutsa, chifukwa chakuti anaikonza bwino ndiponso anaikonza bwino ntchitoyo.
Alice Paul (1885-1977)
Alice Paul, yemwe anali katswiri wa ERA, ankalemba mabuku a asilikali ndipo anaphunzira njira zachindunji za gulu la Britain. Atamaliza kukonzanso zinthu za ku Britain, anayamba kugwiritsa ntchito mfundo zachikhalidwe zogwirizana ndi malamulo a boma. Iye analemba chilankhulo choyambirira cha ERA mu 1923 ndipo analimbikira kuti chikhale chovomerezeka mpaka imfa yake mu 1977.
Phyllis Schlafly (1924 - 2016)
Schlafly, yemwe anali wokhoza kutsutsa Era, analinganiza gulu laudzu limene linagonjetsa kuwonongeka kwa zinthu m’dzikolo.
Gloria Steinem (b. 1934)
Mawu otchuka a akazi a ma 1970, Steinem anapereka umboni pamaso pa Nyumba ya Malamulo pochirikiza ERA, analemba zambiri ponena za kufunika kwake, ndi kuthandiza kusonkhanitsa gulu lalikulu la ochirikiza. Ntchito yake poyambitsa M. Magazini [[FLT: 1] anapereka pulatifomu ya malingaliro a akazi.
Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
Mlembi wa Mystique ndi Woyambitsa wa PANO, Friedan adathandiza kupanga ERA kukhala chonulirapo chachikulu cha gulu la akazi. Iye anathandizira kuwongolera ndi kugwiritsa ntchito Congress mu 1972.
Choloŵa Chalamulo: Kodi ERA Inali Yofunika Popanda Kukopa?
Ngakhale kuti ERA inalephera kufika pachitseko cha kugoma, chisonkhezero chake pa lamulo la America ndi chitaganya chakhala chokulira. Nkhondo ya ERA inasonkhezera kukonzedwa kwa ufulu wa boma wolingana; maboma makumi aŵiri ndi aŵiri tsopano ali ndi ERA omwe aloŵetsedwa m'malamulo awo. Ndiponso, ndawalayi inaphunzitsa anthu onse za tsankho la amuna ndi kuyala maziko a kupita patsogolo kwalamulo kwa pambuyo pake.
Chiyambukiro pa Kuletsa kwa Khoti Lalikulu
Nkhondo ya ERA inachititsa mkhalidwe wandale umene unasonkhezera kumasulira kwa Khoti Lapamwamba kwa Programme ya 14's Ault Claus. M'nkhani zosintha zinthu monga . [FLT] "--'Ed v. [[FLT]] [[3] [1971] ndi [[FLT] [FLT] [[FLT]] [[5]] CRAG v. Boren'. Borten . [6], Bwalo linayamba kuphulitsa malamulo ozikidwa pa kugonana, kugwiritsa ntchito zimene zinadziŵika monga kupenda kochitidwa pakati. Pamene ERA ikanafuna kupenda kochitidwa monkitsa kwambiri kwa lamulo loyang'anira lamulo loyang'anira lamulo lokhudza lamulo.
Craig v. Reed chigamulo chinali nthaŵi yoyamba Khoti Lalikulu kugwiritsira ntchito Chitetezo Cholingana ndi Claus kuchotsa lamulo limene linapatula akazi. Ndipo Craig v. Boren[FLT : 3] anakhazikitsa muyezo wakuti masankho ozikidwa pa kugonana ayenera kukhala “ogwirizana ndi "" ku zolinga zofunika za boma. Milandule imeneyi inasonyezedwa mwachindunji ndi lonjezo la ERA la kulingana kotheratu.
Kukonzanso: Zaka za Zana Latsopano, M’nyengo Yatsopano
Koma kuyambira m’ma 2010, gulu latsopano la anthu omenyera ufulu linayambanso kuchita ntchitoyi.
Makwalala a Nevada ndi Illinois
Mu 2017, Nevada anakhala boma loyamba la Reify the ERA pambuyo pa nthawi ya 1982. Illinois inatsatira mu 2018. Kenako mu January 2020 Virginia anakhala boma la 38 la raifyd, ndipo anafikitsa malo atatu a nyumba zolowera zimene zinatchulidwa ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo. Komabe, madansiwo anabwera patatha zaka zambiri kuchokera nthawi imene anakhazikitsa malamulo, ndipo anabutsa mafunso ovuta okhudza kukonzanso kwa mapanganowo.
Nkhondo Zalamulo ndi Zololeka
Pambuyo pa kuŵerengera kwa Virginia, Trump ya Ofesi ya Malamulo Council inapereka lingaliro lakuti nthaŵi ya ERA yatha ndi kuti kukonza sikungayambitsenso popanda kukhazikitsanso. Nyumba ya Oimira inapereka chigamulo mu 2021 kuti ichotse nthaŵiyo, koma Nyumba ya Malamulo sinaitenge. Panthaŵiyi, milandu yakhala ikufunafuna kukakamiza Archivist wa United States kuvomereza ERA kukhala mbali ya Lamulo.
Mu 2023, khoti la boma linachotsa mlandu umodzi woterowo, likugamula kuti atsamundawo analibe kaimidwe ndi kuti nthaŵi yake inali yovomerezeka. Chigamulo chimenecho nchapadera tsopano. Mkhalidwe wa ERA udakali umodzi wa mafunso otsutsana kwambiri a lamulo ku America lerolino. Kaamba ka zochitika zamakono, onani webusaiti ya [FLT: 0] Zaufulu za Accounting [FLT: 1] kaamba ka kumasulira kopitirizabe.
Kufunika kwa ERA m’Chigwirizano Chapanthaŵi Yake
Kodi nchifukwa ninji ERA ili yosafunika lerolino, ngakhale ngati sinawonjezeredwebe mwalamulo ku Malamulo?
Kuthetsa Tsankho
Pamene kuli kwakuti lamulo losintha zinthu monga Thit VII la Chikalata cha ufulu wachibadwidwe cha 1964 ndi Thit IX of the Education Amendments ya 1972 laletsa mitundu yambiri ya tsankho la chisembwere, malamulo ameneŵa angasinthidwe kapena kukonzedwa ndi voti wamba ya anthu ambiri m'Congress. Kusintha kwa lamulo, kumapereka chitsimikizo chachikhalire ndi chapamwamba. Ndiponso, Supreme Court siinavomereze kuti kugonana ndiko kuyenera kuikidwa pamlingo wapamwamba wofunikira kupendedwa, monga momwe amachitira fuko ndi chipembedzo. ERA ikasintha, kutsimikizira kuti lamulo lirilonse limene limaphunzitsa amuna ndi akazi mosiyana ndi liyenera kutumikira chiwongola ndi kukwaniritsa icho.
Madera Atsopano: Kudziwika kwa Mabanjalo ndi ERA
RA chilankhulo chake choletsa tsankho “pa chifukwa cha kugonana” chafotokozedwa ndi akatswiri ambiri a zamalamulo ndi ochirikiza ufulu wa kuchotsa tsankho lozikidwa pa chizindikiritso cha mwamuna ndi mkazi. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba 2020 mu Bostock v. Clayton County [1] [], chimene chinkanena kuti kuletsa kwa VII kunyada kwa kugonana kumateteza LGBTQ+ antchito, kwalimbikitsa mfundo imeneyi. Ngati ERA ikhala mbali ya malamulo, ikhoza kupereka chida champhamvu chotetezera anthu mwalamulo, amene amayang'anizana ndi chiwawa ndi kukondera.
Chiwawa Chochokera kwa Anthu Osiyanasiyana Ndiponso ERA
ERA imalimbikitsanso malamulo oletsa chiwawa chozikidwa pa akazi. Makhoti nthaŵi zina awononga mbali za Chiwawa Cholimbana ndi Akazi monga ulamuliro woposa wa Commerce Claus. Chitsimikiziro chowonekera cha kulingana kwa kugonana chikapatsa malamulo a Congress mphamvu zoletsa chiwawa cha m’banja, kuukira chisembwere, ndi kuvutitsa.
Kumaliza: Chipanduko Chosasintha
Chikalata cha mu United States chotchedwa Aumedial Rights Amendment si nkhani ya m’mbuyo ya nkhondo zakale. Chikalatachi chikusonyeza kuti anthu a ku America akukambirana za kulingana. Ulendo wake ndi kuyambika kwake kwamphamvu mu 1923, kudzera m’kupambana kwa zaka za m’ma 1970, kugonjetsedwa komvetsa chisoni kumene kwachitika mu 1982, ndiponso zoyesayesa zaposachedwapa zodzutsanso zaposachedwapa zikuonetsa mphamvu yosatha ya lingaliro lakuti lamulo liyenera kuchitira munthu aliyense ulemu wolingana ndi ulemu.
Ilo laphunzitsa mamiliyoni ambiri ponena za mmene tsankho lakugonana limakhalira, ochirikiza kusintha kwa kagwiridwe kawo ka ntchito ka boma, ndi kukakamiza dongosolo la malamulo kuvomereza kuti kulingana ndi lamulo ndilo phindu lalikulu la lamulo. Kwa awo amene akupitiriza kukhulupirira kuti Lamulolo liyenera kutsimikizira kuti ufulu suyenera kukanidwa chifukwa cha kugonana, ERAyo idakali cholinga choyenerera kumenyera nkhondo.