Mfundo ya lamulo loyenera imaimira mfundo yokhudza demokrase ya ku America. Kuposa njira ya malamulo, imaimira kudzipereka kwakukulu kwa munthu pa chilungamo, nzeru, ndi ulemu wa munthu wolimbana ndi mphamvu yaikulu ya boma. Ulendowu kuchokera ku chitsimikiziro cha lamulo ku England wa 13 mpaka ku dziko lamphamvu lachitukuko la America, umavumbula kulimba kwa dzikolo kopitirizabe kulimbana kuti likhale ndi ufulu wake. Kumvetsa kuti chisinthiko n’chofunika kwambiri pomvetsa mmene chitetezo cha malamulo chamangidwa modetsa nkhaŵa, kupikisana mowopsa, ndi kulongosoledwa mopitirizabe kuti chikwaniritse zofuna za anthu apakati pa 21 mpaka zaka makumi atatu ndi makumi atatu.

Maziko Akuya a Lonjezo: Kusiya Kulimbana ndi Ufulu Woyenerera

Mzera wa mzera wa mzera wa machitidwe woyenerera unayamba motchuka kwambiri ku Runnymede mu 1215, kumene atsogoleri opanduka Angelezi a Mfumu John anakakamiza Mfumu John kusindikiza chisindikizo chake ku Magna Carta . Pamene kuli kwakuti pangano la mtendere lonena za zidandaulo za milandu, zigawo zake zokhalitsa kwambiri zinali ndi mbewu za boma la malamulo. Ilo linalengeza kuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angagwidwe, kumangidwa, kapena kuchotsedwa "kusiyapo ndi chiweruzo chololedwa cha anthu ake kapena lamulo la dziko." Mawuwa, "Mwa lamulo la dziko," ndilo likulu la " dongosolo la lamulo loyambirira."."

Kwa zaka mazana ambiri, lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino limeneli linaleka kufikira kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 17, pamene Bwana Edward Coke, woweruza wachingelezi wowopsa, anadzutsanso Magna Carta m'nkhondo zake zotsutsana ndi ulamuliro wachifumu. Coke anatsutsa kuti "lamulo la dziko" linatanthauza kanthu kena kapadera: linatsimikizira kuloŵa m'makhoti alamulo wamba ndi kumamatira ku kukhazikitsa njira zalamulo. Kumasulira kumeneku kunasonkhezera kwambiri atsamunda a Amereka, omwe anadziona monga oloŵa ufulu wa Angelezi akale. Chikalata cha 1628 cha Leand of Leact and coust Region of Leation Reformation , kuphatikizapo kuyenera kupempha ndi kutetezera kwankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo.

M'maiko a ku America, ntchito yake inayambika ndi kulamulidwa koyamba. Massachusetts Body of Liberation (1641) ndi chikalata cha shifiti, chotsimikizira kuti moyo wa munthu aliyense, ufulu, ndi katundu ukanangokhudza chifukwa cha "lamulo la dzikolo lovomereza zofanana. Zimenezi zinasonyeza kuti Puritainism anadzipereka kulamulira ndi lamulo, osati ndi anthu. Kukwiya ndi Stamp Act ndi kuthandiza kwa munthu aliyense panthaŵi ya chisinthiko kunali njira yofunikira yodandaula. Otsutsa malamulo a dzikolo "Ikole popanda kuimira" ndi kugwiritsira ntchito makhoti oipa, omwe anatumikira popanda juuni. Chikalata cha ufulu cha ufulu weniweni ndicho kachitidwe ka kuswa malamulo, makamaka kwa Mfumu "imbidwa, chifukwa cha mayeso a mlandu wa "

Pambuyo pa ufulu, okonza malamulo pa Convention ya Constitution anakhulupirira kuti boma la dziko lokhala ndi maulamuliro ocheperapo, loŵerengedwa silinali loopsa kwambiri ku ufulu. Zimenezi zinatsimikizira kulakwa. Anti-Fedalist , kulamula kuti Bill of Rights ikhale mkhalidwe wofuna kukhazikitsa, anatsutsa kuti zitsimikizo zolembedwa ndizo zokha zimene zingathandize kuti ufulu ukhale wabwino. James Madison anayankha mwa kulemba buku la ufulu, limene limaphatikizapo Lachisanu Lowonjezera: "Munthu aliyense... adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda dongosolo la lamulo."

Kukonzanso Kwachisanu ndi Chitetezo Chake

Komiti ya A Claus ya Findre Amendment imagwira ntchito m'kusintha ndi zitetezero zina zapadera zokhala mkati mwa kukonzedwa kuti zipange chikopa chokwanira kwa anthu oyang’anizana ndi ulamuliro wa boma. Chili chitsimikiziro cha kuwona mtima, kutsimikizira kuti boma lisanachotse moyo wa munthu, ufulu, kapena katundu, liyenera kutsatira malamulo okhazikitsidwa ndi kupereka mpata watanthauzo wakuti amvedwe.

  • Agogo a Jury Indictment: Pamilandu yaikulu ya boma, Kusintha kwa Gawo la Gawo Loyamba kumafuna kuperekedwa kapena kupatsidwa mlandu ndi ajuli aakulu, kutsimikizira kuti pali chifukwa chothekera kupitiriza kuzenga mlandu.
  • Kuchinjiriza Kulimbana ndi Kupachikidwa Koŵiri: Anthu sangaikidwe mlandu umodzimodziwo kaŵiri, kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chapamwamba kuvutitsa kapena kufooketsa woimbidwa mlandu.
  • Kuchinjiriza Kulimbana ndi Umboni Waumwini : Ufulu wotchuka wa kukhala chete kumatsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene angakakamizidwe kukhala mboni yodzitsutsa. Chitetezo chimenechi, chozikidwa m'malamulo wamba, chimakana njira za Akatolika ndi kuika umboni weniweni pa mlandu.
  • Kutenga Claus: "Nar iyenera kutengedwa kaamba ka kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa onse, popanda kulipira. Chiganizo chimenechi chimachepetsa mwachindunji mphamvu ya boma la malo otchuka, kufuna kulipirira bwino pamene katundu watengedwa kaamba ka ntchito za boma.

Makonzedwe asanu osiyana ameneŵa agwirizanitsidwa pamodzi ndi chitsimikizo chopambanitsa cha njira yoyenera, kupanga dongosolo lolimba kaamba ka ufulu wa munthu aliyense. Bwalo Lamilandu Lapamwamba nthaŵi zonse lamasulira mawu ameneŵa mokulira kutsimikizira kuti iwo agwira ntchito m’nyengo yamakono.

Lamulo la 14 Lowonjezera: Kupereka Chikole ku United States

Bill of Rights inatsekereza boma la boma. Izi zinatsimikiziridwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833), kumene Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall anakhulupirira kuti Fifeth Amendment sinagwire ntchito ku boma kapena maboma akwawo. Kupanda chilungamo koopsa kwa ukapolo ndi nkhondo ya Chiweniweni zinawononga dongosolo lochepali. Nkhondo yapambuyo pa nkhondo ya nkhondo inawononga malo ochepetsedwa. Malamulo a nkhondo a ku America, makamaka Faurenth Amendement mendmend [18:68]]

Chigawo Chimodzi cha Jeneth Amendment chiri ndi ziganizo zitatu zosuliza: Malo Ovomerezeka kapena Immunites Claus, Accolas , ndi Acted Proces Claus Protection . Chikalata cha 'Currect Claus" pano chikuwunikira chisanu koma chikutsogozedwa pa magawowo: "Kupanda Boma lirilonse lidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda dongosolo lalamulo. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa "person" m'malo mwa "citizen" kunali chosankha chadala, chotsimikizidwira kutsimikizira kuti akapolo omasulidwa chatsopano ndi nzika zina zonse zidzatetezedwa.

Chiphunzitso cha Kusintha

Mu Nyumba yopheramo mlandu (1873), Bwalo Lapamwamba linapereka chiwopsezo chosakaza ku Malo Oyenerera kapena ma Immunitunio Claus, kuiŵerenga bwino lomwe kuchokera ku Malamulo kwa zaka zana. Zimenezi zinasiya Act Process Clausse kukhala galimoto yoyamba yotetezera ufulu wofunika kwambiri kuchokera ku zochita za boma. Motero anayamba kuchedwa, mlandu ndi kachitidwe ka ka [FLT] kugwirizanitsa .

Funso lalikulu linali lakuti: Kodi ndi mbali ziti za Bill of Rights zimene zili zofunika kwambiri kwakuti zili "zofunika m'lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa"? Palko v. Connecticut (1937], Jasitisi Cardozo ananena kuti ufulu wokhawo "wozikidwa pa miyambo ndi chikumbumtima cha anthu athu ndi kuikidwa monga maziko" uyenera kugwirizanitsidwa. Njira imeneyi ya "kusankha kugamulidwa" inapezeka pa Jaji Hugo Black Black. Malingaliro akuti Kusintha kwa Thursth kunali ndi cholinga chophatikizapo Malamulo onse a ufulu (information").

Pazaka makumi angapo zotsatira, khoti Lalikulu linaphatikiza pafupifupi mbali iliyonse yaikulu ya bungwe loletsa ufulu wa anthu.

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Demendment Yoyamba (ufulu wa kulankhula).
  • Nearb v. Minnesota[[FL:2] (131]): First Amendment (ufulu wa nyuzipepala).
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut [FL:2] (1940): [Kusintha Koyamba] (kugwiritsira ntchito chipembedzo kwaulere).
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): Demendment Yoyamba (chigamulo chokhazikitsidwa).
  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): [Kusintha kwa] Lachinayi (kulamulira kwa chigawo).
  • Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963): Demestment ya 6 (kuyenera uphungu).
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964): Demetrisement yachisanu (kuchinjiriza ku kudzitetezera).
  • Pointer v. Texas (65): [Kusintha kwa [1] Kusintha kwachisanu ndi chimodzi (kuyenera kuyang'anizana ndi mboni).
  • Dincan v. Louisiana (1968): Demendment yachisanu ndi chimodzi (kuyenera kuzenga mlandu wa ajuli).
  • [[MLT:0] Benton v. Maryland [1] (11969): Demetrimenti yachisanu (kuwopsa koŵirikiza).
  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010): Demendment yachiŵiri (kuyenera kusunga ndi kunyamula zida).

Kusintha kumeneku kunatsimikizira kuti chitsimikiziro cha Bill of Rights chinakhala chitetezero kwa nzika iriyonse, mosasamala kanthu za boma limene imakhalamo.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri: Ufulu Woposa Wofunika

Pamene kuli kwakuti njira zoyenerera za kuulutsa zimatsimikizira njira zolungama (manoce, akumva, woweruza wopanda tsankho), njira yoyenerera yoperekera iri njira yamphamvu ndi yotsutsana kwambiri. Imanena kuti ufulu wina waukulu wazikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ya mtunduwo ndi miyambo kwakuti boma silingakhoze kuloŵererapo konse, mosasamala kanthu za njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito, pokhapokha ngati uli ndi chifukwa chomveka.

Lingaliro limeneli linafalikira choyamba kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20 m'nthaŵi ya Lochner . M'nyengo ya . [FLT]Lochner v. New York (05], Khoti Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito Servement Process Clause ya Genet Demence kugwetsa lamulo la boma logawa miphika kwa maola 60 a ntchito. Khoti linatsutsa kuti "kuyenera kuvomereza" inali ufulu wofunika kwambiri wotetezeredwa ndi njira yoyenera, ndi kuti boma silinapereke chilungamitso chokwanira chosokoneza zimenezi. Chiphunzitso chimenechi chinasuliridwa mowopsa chifukwa cha kuletsa lamulo la kopatsira ufulu pa malamulo a za boma lassez-faire pa malamulo a za boma ndipo chinasiyidwa kumapeto kwa mayeso a masiku ano, kumapeto kwa mayeso a kuyesa a zachuma.

Komabe, Khoti silinasiye njira yoikidwiratu. M’malo mwake, linasintha chiphunzitso ku ufulu waumwini, wofunika kwambiri. Pierce v. Sosaite ya Alongo (1925) ndi [FLT] Meyer v. Nebraska [1] (1923), Khoti linazindikira kuyenera kwa makolo kuwongolera ndi kuphunzitsa ana awo.

Mu Griswold v. Connecticut [FL:1] (65), Bwalo lamilandu linaletsa chiletso cha boma pa zoletsa kubala, likupeza kuti unansi wa ukwati unagwera mkati mwa "bon yachinsinsi" yotetezedwa ndi penumbras of Bill of Rights. Chilungamo cha Harlan, m’lingaliro logwirizana, kuletsa kuyenera kumeneku mwachindunji mu Ceastem Claus. [FLT:]] Roe v. [[5] Malamulo a] (FLT:] [12]] [3]] [7]]), amene amavomereza kuti mkazi ali ndi ufulu wakuchotsa mimba monga mbali ya kuyenera kwa kusuta. [Ftvoset:] Kong'ono [F]

Chigamulo mu Dobbs v. Jackson Akazi 'Auth Organization ya Zaumoyo [2022] Roe [ chimasonyeza kuti njira yoyenerera si chiphunzitso chosatsimikizirika koma mbali yaikulu ya kumasulira kwa malamulo, kudzutsa mafunso ofunika ponena za mmene angadziŵire zoyenera zosasintha.

Kusintha kwa Malamulo m’Nkhokwe ya Warren

Palibe nyengo m’mbiri ya ku America imene inasintha tanthauzo loyenera la kachitidwe ka mwambo kwa nzika wamba kuposa kuperekedwa kwa Woweruza Wamkulu Earl Warren (1953 - 969). Bwalo la Warren linalimbikitsa kwenikweni kuyang’anira chiweruzo cha upandu, likumapereka miyezo yokhwima ya malamulo pa boma ndi apolisi a kumaloko, ozenga milandu, ndi mabwalo a milandu.

Mu Mapp v. Ohio (1961), khoti linakhazikitsa lamulo lopatula logwira ntchito ku maboma, kukakamiza apolisi a boma kugwirizana ndi Demendment Yachinayi. Mu Gedeon v. Wainwr[FL:3] (1963]), Khoti linavomereza kuti Kugamula kwa Sixth Confect kufunikiritsa malamulo operekera ozengedwa milandu amene sangawapatse ufulu wawo, mosasamala kanthu za upandu woikidwa. [FLT:] M'. Mu [FL: 4.] Marinda. Arizona v , linakhazikitsa chiyembeke cha tsopano ndi mayeso a apolisi omwe ayenera kudziŵitsa ufulu wawo wa kuwapatsa ufulu wa kukana mlanduwo ndi kuwapatsa mlandu. Chilango chovomerezeka bwino kwambiri. Chilango chinatsimikizira kuti chilolezo choyenera kuvomereza chilolezo cha kutsutsa chikanezere cha kulakwa chaku

Zigamulo zimenezi sizinali zopanda mkangano. Osuliza anaimba mlandu Bwalo lamilandu kuti "lipha apandu" ndi "kukakamiza apolisi". Komabe, lamulo la maziko lochititsa kusintha kwa bwalo lamilandu la Warren ndilo chikhulupiriro chakuti kuyenera kwa dongosolo la milandu ya upandu kumadalira pa chilungamo chake chachikulu ndi kuti Konsichurako iyenera kukhala chikalata chamoyo chimene chimatetezera osakhoza kugwidwa ndi mphamvu yowopsa ya boma.

Zimene Zinkachitika M’zaka za m’ma 2000: Maboma Atsopano, Nkhondo Zakale

Zipangizo zamakono zikuthamanga, mfundo za makhalidwe abwino za m’dongosolo la zinthu zikuyesedwa m’njira zimene sizinachitikepo.

Mu .Riley v. California[FLT :1] (2014, Khoti Lalikulu la onse linazindikira kuti matelefoni a m’manja sali chabe zinthu zakuthupi koma kutumiza chidziŵitso cha makompyuta. Khotilo linanena kuti apolisi afunikira chilolezo cha kufunafuna foni ya m’manja kuti agwire. Woweruza Wamkulu Roberts analemba kuti chidziŵitso cha pa telefoni "singathe kugwiritsiridwa ntchito monga chida chovulaza ofisala kapena kuchititsa kuthaŵa" ndi kuti "matenda a foni afunikira kwambiri" kupatsidwa ntchito ya "malamulo amakono" kusungidwa kwa mafoni.

Karpeter v. United States (208]) anapitanso kuwonjezera, polingalira kuti boma lipeza masabata a mbiri yakale a maselo a maselo kuchokera kwa onyamula mafoni ndizo kufufuza pansi pa Demetrition yachinayi. Khotilo linazindikira kuti anthu amayembekezera kukhala achinsinsi m’zochitika zawo zonse, kutsutsa mfundo za boma zakuti chidziŵitsocho chinali cha gulu lachitatu (kampani ya foni) mmalo mwa munthu aliyense payekha.

Pambuyo pa njira yaupandu, njira yoyenerera imatsutsidwa mowopsa m'mabwalo ena. Game yoyenerera pa koleji [1] yakhala chiwonero, ndi makhoti olimbana ndi kuchuluka kwa njira zimene ophunzira amayang'anizana ndi zinenezo za kugonana pansi pa mutu wakuti IX, kulinganiza zikhumbo za odandaula ndi ofunsidwa. Khoti Lapamwamba ku Hamdi v. Rumsteld [FFL:3] (2004]) adakhulupirira kuti ngakhale U.S. Amakhala ndi ufulu woikidwa monga "Abulu" kutetezera koyenera, kuphatikizapo ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo wa kupikisana ndi maziko otsekera. [FL:] Mungano: [vBBBBB] [200] [5]

Khoti Lapamwamba lapanganso njira yopendera njira yoyenerera yoyendera: [[FLT]] Mathews v. Elvelit , khoti likhazikitsa mayeso atatu oyezera kuyesa kuti aone ngati njira yalamulo ili yoyenerera:

    [[FLT]] [[FLT]] chikondwerero chaumwini chimene chidzayambukiridwa ndi ntchito yalamulo. [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] [[4] Upandu wa kusoŵa kolakwika kwa zikondwerero zotero kupyolera zogwiritsiridwa ntchito, ndi mapindu owonjezereka owonjezereka ogwiritsiridwa ntchito, ndi kuthandizira. Zosoŵa zaunyinjika. [kuthandiza kwa anthu ambiri], zomwe zinayambitsidwa ndi zowonjezera. [kuthandiza kuwonjezera kuthandizira kwa anthu ambiri]

    Mapeto ake: Lonjezo Lokhalitsa la Kusunga Zinthu Mwachilungamo

    Chisinthiko cha ufulu wa kulinganiza zinthu sikuli kokha mbiri yalamulo; ndi nkhani ya nkhondo ya America kugwirizanitsa malingaliro ake apamwamba ndi kulephera kwake. Kuchokera ku minda yafumbi ya Runnymede kufikira kwa olemba malembo opanda mawu a Silicon Valley, kufunafuna chilungamo chachikulu. Lingaliro la njira yoyenerera latsimikizira kukhala chimodzi cha ziŵiya zosinthika ndi zamphamvu koposa m'mabukhu a malamulo, zokhoza kusinthira ku ziwopsezo zatsopano pamene kuli kwakuti zikhale zozikabe m'lamulo lakale kuti boma liyenera kutsatira lamulo ndi kupatsa munthu aliyense ulemu.

    Pamene mavuto atsopano abuka . Kukula kwa luntha lopanga ndi chilungamo cha ndandanda kufikira pa mkangano wopitirizabe wa chisungiko cha dziko, kusamuka, ndi kusalingana kwa chuma . Lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino liyenera kuchita bwino, kuyenera kutsatira malamulo ake, ndipo ayenera kulemekeza ulemu wa munthu aliyense. Mbali wa mbiri yakale ya ku America ukupitirizabe kugonjera ku chilungamo makamaka chifukwa chakuti lingaliro la njira yoyenerera, yosinthika, yokhalitsa, ndi ya anthu aakulu, limapereka kampasi yake ya makhalidwe abwino. Kusunga kampasi yamphamvu, nzika yodziŵa bwino ndi kufunikira kutetezeredwa kumeneku ndilo chitetezo chachikulu cha choloŵa cha lamulo chimenechi.