Malamulo a ngozi ndi kutsekeredwa kwa pulogalamu ya kukhazikitsa malamulo amapanga maziko a kulungamitsa m'malamulo ambiri, makamaka ku United States. Pamene kuli kwakuti ziphunzitso zonse ziŵiri zimatetezera anthu ku kubwerezabwereza ndi kuchenjera kwa boma, iwo amagwira ntchito m'ma mbulunga osiyanasiyana(mphindi ndi chiŵeru ndi ziŵerunizo zimagwira ntchito malekezero osiyana. Kuopsa kwaŵiri, kozikidwa pa Kukonzanso Koyamba, kumatseka boma kuti lisapereke munthu mlandu kaŵiri pa mlandu upandu umodzimodziwo. Nkhaniyi imapenda mfundo za m'mbiri ya mbiri yakale, kutsekereza, chiphunzitso chachikhalidwe cha anthu wamba cha preclusion, kuletsa magulu andale ankhani ankhani asanayambe kale kuchitika. Onse pamodzi, amachirikiza kukwaniritsa, ndi kusasintha kwa chilungamo. Nkhaniyi imapenda mfundo za m'mbiri, ndi kusiyana kwa ziphunzitso ziŵiri pakati pa ziphunzitso zachigawa, ndi kuphatikizana kwa milandu.

Kumvetsetsa Chizindikiro cha Maupandu Aŵiri

Maupandu aŵiri ali chitetezo cha lamulo chimene chadziŵika kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Chiyambi chake chimatsatira lamulo lakale la Girisi ndi Roma, ndipo chinakhazikika m'lamulo la Chingelezi pofika nthaŵi ya kukhazikitsidwa kwa America. Mpando wachisanu ku United States umachititsa chitetezo, ukumati: "Palibe munthu amene adzagonjera kaamba ka chitsutso chimodzimodzicho kuti aikidwe kuupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo china." Mawu ameneŵa amagwira ntchito ku boma la boma ndipo, kudzera ku Demendment, ku maboma a 145.

Zitetezero za Chimanga

Mawu oikapo ngozi ziŵiri akupereka zitetezero zitatu zosiyana: (1) limaletsa kuzenga mlandu wachiŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa; (2) limaletsa kuzengedwa mlandu kwachiŵiri kwa mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa chitsimikiziro; ndi (3) limaletsa chilango chambiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Zitetezero zimenezi zalinganizidwira kuletsa boma kuyesera mobwerezabwereza kupatsa munthu mlandu, mwakutero kupeŵa kuvutitsa ndi kutetezera mapeto a chiweruzo.

Kukhululukidwa kuli chochititsa chachikulu koposa. Ngakhale ngati umboni watsopano ubuka, boma silingayese woimbidwa mlandu akadakhala woweruza (kapena woweruza pa mlandu wa ben) kumasulira chigamulo chosalunjika. Lamulo limeneli linatsimikiziridwa mu Fong Foo v. United States (1962]), kumene Khoti Lapamwamba linasunga kuti munthu wosunthidwa wozikidwa pa chigamulo chotsogozedwa (kapenanso) ngakhale ngati anali ndi zolakwika. Mofananamo, mu Bursks v. United States[FLT:] [FLT] [6] [17]] [7]), khotilo linagamula kuti ngati khoti la Aumo lamilandu la kutsutsa chifukwa chakuti silina, wosungidwayo sangabwezedwenso chifukwa chakuti wofanana ndi wofanana ndi chilomonezere.

Kuyesa Kwachiwawa

Funso lovuta kwambiri lokhudza ngozi ndilo limene limapanga "uchimo umodzi. Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula zimenezi mu . United States (1932]), kukhazikitsa "malamulo": maupandu aŵiri safanana ngati aliyense akufuna umboni wa mbali imene inayo siinaichite. Komabe, milandu yotsatira yasintha kusiyana. Grady v. Corbin [[FL:3] [1990]]), Khoti linawonjezera "kuyesa kwa kampaniyo", koma linalamulira [FLD:4] m'dziko. Dixman v [FLD:]

Muyezo umenewu ungakhale wocholoŵana pamene muchita zinthu mosemphana ndi malamulo ambiri. Mwachitsanzo, malonda a mankhwala ogodomalitsa angachititse zinenezo za kukhala ndi chuma, kukhala ndi cholinga cha kugawira, ndi chiwembu cha zinthu zosiyanasiyana.

Ulamuliro Wogwirizana

Kupatulidwa kwakukulu ku ngozi ziŵiri ndi chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri. Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, maulamuliro osiyana monga boma ndi boma . angaimbe mlandu mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo popanda kuphwanya ngozi yoŵirikiza. Zimenezi zinakhazikitsidwa mu United States v. Lanza [1] (1922)) [kumenenso] anaimbidwanso mlandu mu [[FLT] v. Alabama[FLT] [1985]. Mfuno ndi yakuti munthu aliyense ali ndi chikhumbo chake chaumwini popereka malamulo ake. Motero, wopalamula mlandu wa kupha munthu m'khoti ya boma angayesedwebe m’khoti kaamba ka kuswa ufulu wa anthu.

Anthu ena amati mfundo imeneyi ndi yosagwirizana ndi mfundo yakuti anthu amene ali ndi ulamuliro wachiwiri amalephera kuyendera malamulo a boma, koma Khoti Lalikulu la Katolika limatsatirabe mfundo imeneyi makamaka pankhani zokhudza khalidwe loipa la apolisi kapena malamulo a boma ophwanya malamulo.

Pamene Mapazi Apangozi

Chitetezo cha ngozi cha kaŵiri sichiyamba panthaŵi ya kumangidwa. M’malo mwake, "chimangiriridwa" pa nsonga yapadera m'kuchitika. M'kuzengedwa mlandu, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene oweruza aikidwa pa malo oyenera ndi kulumbira. M’kuzenga kwa ben, imagwirizanitsa pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira. Ngati mabwalo aperekedwa pamaso pa chigwirizano (mwachitsanzo, mkati mwa kuopsa), woimbidwayo angabwezeretsedwe popanda kuwopsa. Komabe, khotilo liyenera kulingalira mosamalitsa ngati Mkwiritsirizoyo wavomereza molakwa kapena ngati kuwonekera kukhalako kaamba ka chilengezo chake.

Chochitika chowonekera United States v. Perez (1824) anayambitsa muyezo "moyenerera", kufunikira woweruza kufunikira kukhala ndi mlingo waukulu wa kusoŵa asanalengeze kulakwa pa chitsutso cha woimbidwa mlandu. Zitsanzo za kuwonekera zimaphatikizapo kudwala kwa mwadzidzidzi kwa ajuli kapena woimbidwa mlandu. Popanda kufunikira kotero, kuzengedwa kwachiŵiri kumaletsedwa.

Mfundo ya Collateral Estopel

Colleteral estopel, yomwe imadziwikanso monga nkhani ya kutsegulidwa kwa nkhani, ndi chiphunzitso chofala cha malamulo chimene chimaletsa chipani kugamula nkhani imene yagamulidwa kale isanachitike. Mosiyana ndi ngozi ziŵiri, zimene zili ndi ufulu walamulo, kuimira kuima kwa boma ndi lamulo la malamulo oyendetsera chuma cha anthu ndi chilungamo. Imagwira ntchito pa nkhani zonse ziŵiri za anthu ndi aupandu, ngakhale kuti ndi zofunika ndi ziyambukiro zosiyanasiyana.

Zinthu Zopangidwa ndi Collateral Estopel

Kuti apendeeteral estopel kuti aikenso mbali ya nkhani, zinthu zinayi ziyenera kukwaniritsidwa:

  • Nkhani imene ikukambidwa iyenera kukhala yofanana ku nkhani yogamulidwa sanayambe.
  • Nkhaniyo iyenera kukhala inatsutsidwadi m'nkhani za kuyambika. Nkhani zothetsedwa ndi chiweruzo chotsimikizirika kapena chivomerezo kaŵirikaŵiri sizimayenerera.
  • Nkhaniyo iyenera kukhala inatsimikiziridwa kwenikweni ndi kwenikweni ndi chiweruzo chapasadakhale. Ndiko kuti, chigamulo cha nkhaniyo chinali chofunika ku chotulukapo chomalizira.
  • Mgwirizano umene amanenezedwa kuti alekeretu uyenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi wokwanira ndi wolungama kulongosola nkhaniyo sanayambe . Izi zimaphatikizapo kukhala ndi chidziŵitso ndi mwaŵi wokwanira kupereka umboni ndi chigomeko.

Zinthu zimenezi zimatsimikizira kuti estopel sagwiritsiridwa ntchito mopanda chilungamo. Mwachitsanzo, ngati mlandu woyambirira unachotsedwa pamaziko a procedrom mmalo mwa kuyenerera, kupenda estol sikumagwirizanitsa chifukwa chakuti nkhaniyo sinagamulidwe kwenikweni.

Kuchitirana Zinthu Mogwirizana

Mwamwambo, kuyang'anira estopel kunafuna kugwirizana: kokha oloŵa m'suti yoyamba omwe onse aŵiri anali okhoza kugwiritsira ntchito Emisal wina ndi mnzake mu msiti wachiŵiri. Lamulo limeneli kaŵirikaŵiri linatsogolera ku kubwezera kwa kuwononga kwa nkhani imodzimodziyo kwa adani osiyanasiyana. Mkupita kwanthaŵi, malamulo ambiri analeka zofunika za kugwirizana, kulola kuti pakhale kuletsana ndi kutetezera komwe.

Kupanda kulakwa kwa kuletsa kuchitidwa pamene woimba mlandu apempha chiweruzo chapasadakhale pa woimbidwa mlandu amene anataya sutiyo. Mwachitsanzo, ngati dalaivala anapezedwa wonyalanyaza m'chochitika chimodzi cha ngozi ya galimoto, wosiyana ndi ngozi ina yochititsidwa ndi dalaivala yemweyo angagwiritsire ntchito. Wopalamula wosalekekayo pamene agwiritsira ntchito chiŵeruzo choyambirira pa wopalamulayo amene anataya suti. Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuletsa kuima kwa osakhala a m'galimoto mu [FLT: 0] Blonder-To Gameary, Inc. University of Illinome. v.V.[FL.1] [2]

Colleteral Estomal Mlandu wa Apandu

Ngakhale kuti ngozi ziŵiri zimapereka chitetezo champhamvu m'milandu yaupandu, kutetezera kope la Estopel kukhozanso kuchita mbali. Pansi pa Ashe v. Senson (1970), Khoti Lapamwamba linkaphatikizapo kuyang'anira kutseka kwa kuopsa kwa kuwirikiza kaŵiri kwa Kusintha kwa Malamulo. [[FLT:] Ashe[FLT] [FLT]] [FLT]], woimbidwa mlandu anamasulidwa wa kuba mkhole wina koma anayesedwa pambuyo pake chifukwa cha kulanda mkhole wachilendo m’chochitika chimodzimodzicho. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti nkhani ya chizindikiritso cha Firedi . Monga momwe anali mmodzi wa mbalazo. Iye adagamusankha m’chiyanjo chake choyamba, ndipo chifukwa chake sikanatha kuimbidwanso m’kuweruza kwachiŵiri.

Kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa kutsekereza kotsekeredwa kwa pulogalamu yaupandu kumeneku nthaŵi zina kumatchedwa "kudziwitsa mlandu m'milandu yaupandu". Kumaletsa mlandu kutsutsa nkhani imene inagamulidwa bwino kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo, ngakhale ngati mlandu wachiŵiri uphatikizapo mlandu wina. Komabe, chiphunzitsocho nchochepa: sichimaletsa kuzengedwa mlandu pambuyo pake pa mlandu wopatulidwa umene sumadalira pa nkhani zenizeni zofananazo.

Kuletsa Kuchita Zinthu Mopanda Malamulo

M'kutsegulidwa kwa boma, janteteral estoppel imapemphedwa kaŵirikaŵiri kuchirikiza chipambano. Mwachitsanzo, ngati khoti lagamulapo kuti chinthu china chinakonzedwa molakwika, kuti kupeza kungagwiritsiridwe ntchito motsutsana ndi wopanga winayo m’mabwalo osiyanasiyana otsatizana ndi mabwalo a milandu osiyanasiyana (kuletsa kosasankha) kapena wokonzayo kusungitsa wogulitsa amene analephera kale pa nkhani imeneyo (wopanda kuletsa kwachibadwa). Komabe, makhoti amasunga lamulo kukana kuletsa kuletsa kulakwa ngati kukanakhala kosayenera, ngati woimbidwayo anali ndi chisonkhezero chochepa chotetezera mwamphamvu m’nkhani yoyamba.

Chiphunzitsocho chimagwira ntchito mofananamo kumabwalo amilandu a boma ndi a boma, koma lamulo la boma limalamulira ziyambukiro zotheratu za zigamulo za khoti m’makhoti a boma, ndipo lamulo la boma limalamulira chiyambukiro cha ziweruzo za boma.

Kusiyana Kokulira Pakati pa Kuwopsezedwa ndi Colteral Estopel

Ngakhale kuti ziphunzitso zonse ziŵiri zimaletsa kubwerezabwereza kwa mawu, zimasiyana m’mbali zazikulu zingapo:

  • Kusiyanitsa kwa Kuthandiza: Upandu waŵiri umagwiritsidwa ntchito kokha ku milandu ya upandu. Colteral estopel imagwira ntchito ponse paŵiri m'milandu yachiŵeniŵeni ndi yaupandu, ngakhale kuti kugwiritsa ntchito kwake kwaupandu kuli koikizidwa ndi malamulo alamulo.
  • Mutu wa Chilamulo: [[FLT :1] Upandu waŵiri uli kuyenera kwa lamulo (Mpambo wa Chingelezi). Colteral estoppel ndi chiphunzitso chofala cha malamulo, ngakhale kuti waphatikizidwa m'Malamulo a Kaŵiri a Jupardy Claus kaamba ka milandu yaupandu kupyolera mwa [FLT:] Ashe v. SENson .
  • [[FLT: 0] Mtundu wa Prohibition: Upandu waŵiri umaletsa kuweruza kwambiri kapena chilango kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo. Colteral estopel imaletsa kuperekedwanso kwa nkhani zakutizakuti zimene zagamulidwa kale.
  • Chochitika chodzutsa: Kuikapo ngozi kaŵiri pa kukhululukidwa, kutsimikizika, kapena zilango zambiri. Colteral estopel ifuna chiweruzo chomaliza pa ubwino umene kwenikweni unathetsa nkhaniyo.
  • Parties : [[FLT :1] Upandu waŵiri umatetezera kokha woimbidwa mlandu aliyense pa kachitidwe ka boma. Colteral estopel ingagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi kapena kutsutsana ndi chipani chilichonse chimene chinali ndi mpata wokwanira ndi woyenerera wa kutchula, kuphatikizapo zipani zachinsinsi za m’masuti a boma.
  • Malingaliro: Upandu waŵiri uli ndi kusiyana konga ulamuliro wa mbali ziŵiri ndi kuwonekera kwa kufunikira kwa mabwalo olakwika. Colteral estol yakhala yopanda maziko pa chilungamo, yopanda mwaŵi wokwanira, kapena masinthidwe m’malamulo.

Maloya woteteza milandu ayenera kumvetsetsa pamene ngozi yachiŵiri ichitika m’mabwalo a milandu, pamene kuli kwakuti woweruza wa boma ayenera kupenda ngati chigamulo choyambirira chimaletsa kubwezera nkhani inayake. M’zochitika zina, ziphunzitso ziŵirizo zingagwire ntchito . Mwachitsanzo, ngati mpandu wolakwayo asankha nkhani imene imakhala yofunikira kuimbidwa pa ufulu wa anthu. Komabe, suti yachiŵeniŵeni siletsedwa ndi ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri (chifukwa chakuti ndi wosiyana kapena wotsatira lamulo lachiŵeniŵeni), koma kuletsa kwa chigamulo kungagwiritsiridwe ntchito kuletsa kuletsa nkhaniyo.

Kuvuta kwa Chizoloŵezi cha Malamulo

Attorney ayenera kupenda mosamalitsa ziyambukiro zophatikizidwa za chiweruzo chapasadakhale popanga njira zopangira milandu. Nazi mfundo zazikulu m'nkhani zosiyanasiyana:

Kuteteza Apandu

Maupandu aŵiri ali chiŵiya champhamvu. Ngati kukhululukidwa, uphungu wodzitetezera uyenera kuchititsa mwamsanga kuzenga mlandu uliwonse wotsatirapo kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo, ngakhale ngati boma lingayese kubweretsa mlandu wina womwe umaphatikizapo khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Mayeso a Blockburger ndi "zigawo ziŵiri" nzofunika. Kuwonjezerapo, ngati kuzenga mlandu kusanachitike kunatuluka chifukwa cholephera kuchotsa nkhani yeniyeni imene inathetsadi nkhani yotsutsana ndi yokhudzana ndi mfundo ina.

Komabe, munthu amene wapatsidwa chilolezocho angaimbidwebe mlandu ndi boma chifukwa chakuti angafunikire kuyankha mafunso oyenera kuti aphedwe.

Kuzenga Mabodza

M’nkhani zachiŵeniŵeni, kuyang'anira estopal kungakhale ponse paŵiri lupanga ndi chikopa. Ofufuza angagwiritsire ntchito kuimitsa konyansa kuti athetse vuto ngati woimbidwa mlandu watalephera kale pa nkhani imodzimodziyo. Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, oimbidwa mlandu angagwiritsire ntchito njira yodzitetezera kuletsa munthu wotsutsa amene walephera kale kusutanso pa mfundo imodzi. Mfungulo ndi yotsimikizira kuti asanachite ntchitoyo ikupereka mpata wokwanira ndi woyenerera wa kuimbidwa.

Uphungu uyeneranso kulingalira za kugwirizana kwa zotulukapo zachiŵeniŵeni ndi zaupandu. Mwachitsanzo, ngati woimbidwa mlandu wa mlandu waupandu, maumboni ofunikira kaamba ka chitsimikiziro chimenecho angagwiritsiridwe ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri motsutsana ndi iwo m’chitsutso cha kutsekereza pa chiphunzitso cha kutsimikizira kwa kutseka, malinga ngati chigamulo cha upandu chinali chiweruzo chomalizira pa zabwinozo. Ichi nchofala m’nkhani zachinyengo, kuswa malamulo, kapena kuvulazidwa kwa munthu mwini kumene liŵongo la upandu wa chitsimikizo.

Kugwiritsa Ntchito Bwino Malonda ndi Malonda Okopa Anthu

Kuzindikira pamene ngozi yagwirizanitsidwa kuli kofunika kaamba ka zigamulo zamachenjera ponena za milandu yolakwa. Woimbidwa mlandu amene awona chitsimikiziro choyandikira angafune kusuntha kaamba ka kulakwa asanagamule, koma ngati ngozi yaikidwa, khoti liyenera kupeza kuyenera kulengeza kulakwa popanda chivomerezo cha woimbidwa mlandu. Ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo avomereza, kugamulanso kumaloledwa. Mofananamo, njira ya kuweruza iyenera kuŵerengera ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri: ngati chitsimikiziro chasinthidwa kaamba ka umboni wosakwanira, woimbidwayo sangabwezeretsedwe, koma ngati asinthidwa kaamba ka kulakwa kwa mlandu, kuweruzanso kuyenera kuvomerezedwa.

Nkhani za Colleteral estol kaŵirikaŵiri zimabuka pamene mapwando atsutsa chiyambukiro cha chigamulo chimodzi chisanakhale. Muyezo wa kubwereramo kaŵirikaŵiri umachotsedwa pa nkhani za lamulo koma kuyenerera ku zopezedwa zenizeni. A Attorney ayenera kusunga mikangano yonena za kupeka mlandu m’khoti kuti apeŵe kukana kulakwa.

Mapulogalamu a Masiku Ano ndi Masukulu Okambirana

Ziphunzitso zakuti anthu amawononga zinthu kawiri ndiponso kuti azitha kuikira kumbuyo malamulo, zimangosintha n’cholinga choti athetse mavuto atsopano.

Kudzisungira M’malo ndi Kuika Anthu Paupandu

M'mbiri, kutayikiridwa kwa boma sikunalingaliridwa kukhala chilango kaamba ka zifuno zoŵirikiza. Komabe, mu United States v. Halper (1999), Khoti Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti chilango chachiŵeniŵeni chingakhale chosayerekezereka kwambiri kufikira chilango chachiŵiri. Mabungwe pambuyo pake anasintha malamulo, ndipo nkhaniyo idakali yotsutsana. [Mu [FLT:]] supusson v. United States (1997), Khotilo linaleka kuchoka ku [[FLT:] [FLT:] [ka], posunga kuti zilango za anthu sizili zopambanitsa ngati zili zongogwira ntchito.

Kutsutsa Kugwirizana ndi Kunenezana Mochuluka

Chitsutso chosaletsa chilolezo cha kuletsa chimakhala chiŵiya champhamvu kwambiri m'kutenga mawu otere, kulola ofufuza kubwereka zopezedwa za mlandu woyambirira wa belyether . Komabe, makhoti ngochenjera: ngati mlandu woyamba sunali woimira, kapena ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo anali ndi chisonkhezero chosakwanira chotetezera, estopel angakanidwe. Parkete Hosiery [1] Mfundo zotsogolera makhoti ozenga mlandu pogwiritsira ntchito mwanzeru. Ena amakana kuti asafune kuti aleke kuletsa kwanthaŵi zonse kapena kuti afune kutsana, kupanga mwaŵi wa kuyendetsa ntchito.

Maprogramu a Mayiko ndi Kuwonjezera

Maupandu aŵiri amadziŵika m'malamulo ambiri, koma kugwiritsira ntchito kwake kowonjezera kuli ndi polekezera. Mapangano a zalamulo amitundu yonse kaŵirikaŵiri amaphatikizapo makonzedwe akulimbana ndi ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, koma chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa aŵiri chimatanthauza kuti munthu womasulidwa m'dziko limodzi angaimbidwe mlandu ku United States kaamba ka khalidwe limodzimodzilo ngati maulamuliro onse aŵiri ali ndi ulamuliro. U.S. sanasaine lamulo la Roma la Khoti la Maupandu la International Criminal chifukwa cha kuwopsa koŵirikiza kaŵiri. Nkhanizi zimabuka m'maupandu a m'gulu la milandu, kuukira kwa pa Intaneti, ndi milandu ya uchigaŵenga.

Colleteral estopel siilongosoledwa kwambiri m'malamulo a mitundu yonse, koma mabwalo ena apadziko lonse amagwiritsira ntchito nkhani za kugawana m'zochitika za ziphaso zophatikiza. Ofufuza milandu ya kutsutsana ndi kutsutsana ayenera kupenda chiyambukiro chotheratu cha chiweruzo cha maiko ena pansi pa malamulo a kumaloko ndi mapangano.

Kutaya Mtima Kwakuŵiri ndi Kukula kwa Mabungwe Okhulupirika

Mabungwe a kukhulupirika kokhulupirira m'maofesi a oweruza nthaŵi zina amavumbula zikhulupiliro zolakwika ndi kukana. Ngati chitsimikizo chachotsedwa chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa lamulo, woimbidwa mlandu angaikidwenso mlandu. Koma ngati tchuthicho chazikidwa pa umboni wosakwanira kapena kupeza kuti palibe chifukwa cholakwika, ngozi ziŵiri zingatsegulenso. Kulimbana kumeneku pakati pa kutha ndi chilungamo kukupitirizabe kuyambitsa mikangano ndi malamulo.

Kumaliza

Ngozi ziŵiri ndi kutsekeredwa kwa pulogalamu ya kuweruza kwabwino. Upandu waŵiri umapatsa chitetezero cha lamulo pa milandu yaupandu yobwerezabwereza, pamene kuli kwakuti kuyang'anira koletsa kuchirikiza chuma cha komiti kuchirikiza kugamulanso nkhani zothetsedwa m'nkhani ziŵiri zachiŵeniŵeni ndi zaupandu. Ngakhale kuti sizinasiyana, iwo ali ndi cholinga chimodzi: kutsimikizira kuti kuvomereza kuli komaliza, kogwira ntchito, koyenera, ndi koyenera. Attorney amene amazindikira ziphunzitso zimenezi angatetezere bwino ufulu wa makasitoma awo, kupeŵa kusakaza, ndi maluso opindulitsa a ntchito m'malamulo ovuta.

Kuti aŵerengenso, Cornell Information Institute imapereka kusanthula kokwanira kwa [[FLT: 0] ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri , ndi chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba mu United States v. Dixon[[FLT:] amapereka malamulo amakono oletsa kuima. [[FLT: 3] [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] Parkhane Hosiey Co. v. Shore[FLT:] mlandu ukhalabe wovomerezeka pa osakhala aeut eemail. Boma - Depalset projective projective . [FUL]