Kodi Kusimbira Kuyamba Nchiyani?

Chiphunzitso choyambirira ndi chiphunzitso cha kumasulira kogwirizana ndi lamulo limene limafuna kupereka ulamuliro womamatira ku malemba a Konsichushoni monga momwe linadziŵikira poyamba ndi awo amene analembetsa ndi kuvomereza. Mfundo yaikulu njakuti tanthauzo la malemba alamulo limaikidwa panthaŵi ya kukhazikitsa ndipo sayenera kusintha kukonzedwa kwa lamulo. Ochirikiza, kuphatikizapo Woweruza Antonin Scalia ndi Jasitisi lamakono Clarence Thomas, akutsutsa kuti chiphunzitso choyambirira chimapereka chotsimikizirika, chosasunthika, ndi chovomerezeka m'lamulo, kuletsa oweruza kusagwiritsira ntchito malamulo awoawo m'lamulo.

Osuliza amatsutsa kuti chiphunzitso choyambirira chingakhale chokhwima kwambiri, chotsekera m'zimvero zakale ndi kupita patsogolo kwa mayanjano. Amawona kuti olembawo sagwirizana pa nkhani zambiri ndi kuti kuzindikira "tanthauzo loyamba" kaŵirikaŵiri nkovuta kapena nkosatheka. Ndiponso, kugwiritsa ntchito kwa chiyambi kwa mavuto amakono monga chinsinsi cha makompyuta, luso lapamwamba lakubala, kapena kulingalira kofanana kwa munthu kumene kungakulitse chidziŵitso choyambirira chosadziŵika. Kulimbana kumeneku kuli kwakukulu makamaka polingalira za zoyenera za akazi, amene malo awo alamulo asintha kwambiri chiyambire nyengo yopezedwa.

Ufulu wa Akazi ndi Malamulo

Malamulo a U.S., monga momwe anavomerezedwera mu 1788, sanalozere mwachindunji za ufulu wa akazi. Malamulo a akazi panthaŵiyo anali olamulidwa ndi chiphunzitso chofala cha kubisa, pamene mkazi wokwatira anaikidwa mwalamulo ndi mwamuna wake. Akazi sanafune kuvota, kukhala ndi udindo wa onse, kutumikira pa majunja, kapena katundu wawo m’dzina lawo. Malamulo oyambirira anali ngati malo a Ufulu ndi Immunious Claus (Artle IV) ndi chilolezo cha boma (Arbacle IV, gawo 4) Sanamva kuti akazi atetezedwe m'moyo wa anthu wamba.

Pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni ndi kupeputsa kwa Firmententh Amendment (1868) pamene Malamulo anayamba kupereka maziko a kulingana kwa mwamuna ndi mkazi. Chitetezo cha Malamulo cha Malamulo chinapereka kuti palibe boma "loyenera kugonjera munthu aliyense wokhala ndi ulamuliro wake kutetezera kofanana kwa malamulo. Ngakhale kuti kukonza malamulo kunalinganizidwa poyambirira kutetezera ufulu wa amuna a ku Africa, liwu lakuti "person" ndiweyamuna. M'zaka za zana lotsatira, Bwalo Lapamwamba linkapempha chitetezo cha Clausleast kugonjetsa malamulo amene anasiyanitsa ndi kugonana, kuyambira ndi [FL:]: [FT] "3]. [4]

Demendment ya Nictth (20) inatsimikizira akazi kuti ali ndi ufulu wosankha, koma sinafotokoze mitundu yochuluka ya kusalingana kwa malamulo. Zoyenera [ELT]], imene ikanapereka lamulo la lamulo lachindunji la kugonana ndi amuna, inaperekedwa mu 1972 koma inalephera kukwaniritsa kukwaniritsa kulinganiza kwa mitundu yofunikira. Kulephera kumeneku kwasiya Chitetezero cha Clausnae monga galimoto yoyamba ya ufulu wa lamulo wa akazi, kupanga njira yomasulira yoyambirira ya kumasulira [1] programmetics kapena yopanga malamulo a moyo.

Kuyambirira ndi Ufulu Wachibadwidwe: Kusagwirizana ndi Malingaliro ndi Kulephera

Mafumu a Kasupe ndi Achisanu ndi chimodzi ndi Chisanu ndi Chisanu ndi Chiŵiri Nom

Pansi pa njira yolimba ya kukhazikitsa, Konsichushoni imamasuliridwa mogwirizana ndi tanthauzo loyambirira la anthu la malemba ake. Panthaŵi ya Kupezedwa, akazi anaonedwa kukhala ogonjera mwalamulo kwa amuna m’mbali zambiri. Opanga zipinda sanawone akazi kukhala otengamo mbali ofanana m'chitaganya cha ndale zadziko; inde, kugwiritsira ntchito "ye" ndi "hi" m'malamulo oyambirira kunasonyeza lingaliro lakuti moyo wapoyera unali wa mwamuna yekha. Kwa akatswiri oyambirira, nkhani za mbiri yakale: tanthauzo la Malamulo silikukula chifukwa chakuti miyezo ya anthu imasintha.

Olemba mbiri ena oyambirira, monga Jasitisi Scalia, ananena kuti Acumial Protection Claus, poyamba sanamvedwe kukhala oletsa mitundu yambiri ya tsankho lakugonana. Malinga ndi lingaliro lake, Claus anali kudera nkhaŵa kwakukulukulu ndi tsankho la fuko kwa amuna Akuda, ndipo kuwonjezera kulikonse kwa akazi kunafunikira kukonzanso kochitidwa mwalamulo. Malamulo ameneŵa akukhala osiyana ndi amuna ali alamulo pokhapo ngati iwo ali opanda nzeru, muyezo umene ungalole malamulo ambiri opatula upo mlanduwo amene anali ofala m’mbuyo mwa zaka za 1970.

Kuyambirira Kokulirapo ndi Tanthauzo la "Petulo"

Si akatswiri onse oyambirira amene amatsatira maganizo opeputsa. Akatswiri ena, monga ngati John O. McGinnis . ndi Michael B. Rappaport , ochirikiza "njira zoyambirira," zimene zimayendera malamulo omasulira amene opanga okha agwiritsira ntchito. Pansi pa mfundo imeneyi, mawu akuti "person" m'Chimakemezi muli tanthauzo lotsimikizirika lomwe limaphatikizapo anthu onse, mosasamala kanthu za kugonana. Kumvetsa koyamba kwa "chitetezero cha " kungakhalenso kokulira kuposa Woweruza Scalia. Mwachitsanzo, omasulira malamulo ena amene anakhazikitsa malamulo amakono otsutsa malamulo otsutsa malamulo, otsutsa malamulo a kukhazikitsa malamulo, otsutsa malamulo a kulinganiza.

Ndiponso, kulinganiza koyambirira kungagwiritsiridwe ntchito ku nkhani ya masankho ozikidwa pa external mwa kusumika maganizo pa tanthauzo la mawu omveka. Chitetezo cha Filimial Protection Claus chimaletsa kukana "chitetezero chofanana cha malamulo. Ngati lamulo loikidwa pa maziko a kugonana, woyambirira angafunse ngati matanthauzo ake akumvedwa kuti akukhala m’zochitika zololedwa ndi boma. Ngakhale ngati olembawo amavomereza malamulo ambiri ozikidwa pa kugonana, iwo angadziŵenso kuti malamulo ena (m.g., ozikidwa pa fuko) amakayikira. Funso ngati tanthauzo loyamba likhoza kuyang'anizira pakati pa kuyang'ana kwa kugonana kwamakono. Ngati amafuna kuyang'ananso malamulo oyenera.

Nkhani Zochititsa Chidwi ndi Kulingalira Koyambirira

Red v. Red (1971] ndi Chiyambi cha Chiphunzitso cha Malonda chamakono

Mu B. Reed, Bwalo Lapamwamba linagonjetsa lamulo la Idaho limene linapatsa amuna chosankha chodzifunira pa akazi poyang'anira malo. Kulemba za Khoti lachisawawa, Woweruza Wamkulu Warren Burger adanena kuti lamulolo linaswa Chitetezo Choyenera chifukwa chakuti linali "kutetezera Claus" ndipo silinagwirizane kwambiri ndi chikondwerero chilichonse cha boma. Khoti silinatenge kupenda kapena chiyeso chilichonse chapadera cha kugonana; linangogwiritsira ntchito maziko oyenerera ndi kupeza kusanthula. Omasulira Baibulo angavomereze zotsatira zimenezi: akazi okha popanda chifukwa chabwino, ndi tanthauzo loyamba la "chitetezero cha kuyenera kuletsa kusiyanitsa kwachimwina. Komabe, [FFF:]

Craig v. Boren [1] (77) ndi Intermediate Scrutiny

Mu Craig v. Boren . Borten , khoti linakhazikitsa kupenda kwapakati kaamba ka masinthidwe a kugonana, kufuna kuti iwo atumikire "zolinga za boma zapadera" ndi "zogwirizana ndi zolinga zimenezo. Kuyesa kumeneku kuli kofuna zambiri kuposa maziko oyenera koma kosamalitsa kwambiri kuposa kusanthula kwenikweni. Woweruza William Brennan, kulemba kaamba ka ambiri, sanakhazikitse chigamulocho m’kulingalira koyambirira; mmalo mwake, anadalira pa kuvomereza kowonjezereka kwa chisankho cha kugonana ndi chigwirizano cha khoti cha kumvetsetsa chitetezero chofanana.

Otsutsa chiphunzitso cha m'Chipangano Chatsopano amanena kuti Craig inali ntchito yachiweruzo yopanda maziko m'zifukwa zoyambirira za Gemence ya 14neth Amendment. Woweruza Rehnqust anatsutsa, kuumirira kuti mamendulo a Kukonzanso Malamulo sanafune kuumiriza kusanthula kwambiri masankho a kugonana. Ngati kuyambirira kunagwiritsiridwa ntchito, malamulo ambiri ozikidwa pa kugonana oikidwa ndi maziko opanda maziko kwa amuna kapena kuchepetsa mphamvu za akazi kukhala ndi lamulo, ngakhale ngati iwo akuwoneka kukhala opanda chilungamo lerolino. Kulimbana kumeneku kumachitira chithunzi chitokoso kutsutsa koyambirira kwamakono kulingana kwa kugonana.

United States v. Virginia (1996) ndi VMI Case

Chigamulo chaposachedwapa chauchikulire wa amuna ndi chapadera kwambiri ndi . [FLT] United States v. Virginia [1] [[FLT :2] [[FLT]], mmene Khoti linavomereza kuti Virginia Military Institute ya amuna okha analola malamulo oletsa Kuteteza Claus. Jasitian Bader Ginsburg, kulemba kaamba ka ambiri, inagwiritsira ntchito njira ya kupenda koyambirira imene inafunikira "kukopa kwenikweni" kaamba ka kukondera chisembwere. Khoti linakana zigomeko za Virginia zimene maphunziro amodzi a ku externina anapereka ndi kuti akazi asintha kwambiri VMIA kuphunzitsidwa kwa opanga.

Chiphunzitso choyambirira chimapereka chichirikizo chochepa kaamba ka chotulukapo chake mu VMI. Panthaŵi ya kuvomerezedwa kwa 144th Amendment, masukulu ankhondo operekedwa poyera anali otsegulidwa kwa anthu okha, ndipo palibe amene analingalira kuti Kutetezera Klaus Kofanana Kumafunikira kwina. Woweruza woyamba akanakhala atachirikiza lamulo la VMI, kuloza ku luntha loyambirira lakuti kusiyana kwa kugonana m’maphunziro kunali kololedwa. Komabe Khoti linagamula 7-1 kuti kusiyana koteroko tsopano kuli kosayenerera. Chigamulo chimasonyeza njira yalamulo yamoyo imene imasintha malamulo kuti asinthe malamulo a m’kakhalidwe.

Zitokoso zamakono za Kuyambirira: “Tanthauzo Loyamba" la Kusintha kwa Zamphumphu kwa 14

Akatswiri ena oyambirira amanena kuti tanthauzo loyamba la Kusintha kwa Zamphongo kwa 14 ndi limalimbikitsa chitetezo champhamvu kwambiri pa kulingana kwa amuna ndi akazi kuposa mmene anthu ambiri amaonera. Mwachitsanzo, Professio Steven G. Calabrasi . Calbrasi [1] adatsutsa kuti tanthauzo loyamba la anthu la "malamulo kapena mathiransi" mu Demetrimenti ya 145" limaphatikizapo ufulu wosiyanasiyana wa malamulo umene akazi amasunga, monga kuyenera kwa chuma chawo ndi kuvomerezana. Palingaliro limeneli, Malo kapena Immuniclee , osati Glokies Claus . , si galimoto yoyenera yotetezera ufulu wa akazi. Komabe, Khoti Lapamwamba lakana kwambiri njira imeneyi, kusungitsa kutetezera.

Mzera wina wa mfundo zoyambirira umagogomezera tanthauzo la "chitetezero chofanana" [1] . Olemba mbiri asonyeza kuti opanga malamulo a 144th Amendment anasonkhezeredwa ndi Civil Rights Act ya 1866, imene imatsimikizira anthu onse kuyenera kwa kupanga mapangano ndi kulandira chuma monga nzika zachiyera. Kuphatikizapo chinenero chimene chimaletsa "lamulo lililonse kapena mwambo" chimene chingaletse ufulu umenewu, kukonzanso kuyenera kuchititsa kuti anthu onse asakhale ndi ufulu uliwonse, kuphatikizapo akazi. Pamene kuli kwakuti kumasulira kumeneku kumatsutsana ndi kuyenera kwa akazi, kumasonyeza kuti chiphunzitso choyambirira sichiyenera kukhala chotsutsa.

Kutsutsana kwa Akatswiri a Panthaŵi Yake

Kodi Kuumirira Utana ndi Ukwati Kumaletsa Akazi Mosapeŵeka Ufulu Wawo?

Akatswiri ambiri a zamalamulo amanena kuti kuyambirira kumatsutsana kwenikweni ndi kulingana kwa amuna. Catharine MacKinnon [1] ndi Marthar Nussbaum imatsutsa kuti Malamulo oyambirira anali gulu la amuna azungu amene anachotsapo akazi ndi magulu ena. Kuyesa kufanana kwa akazi ndi chikalata choterocho, iwo amati, ndi kumasulira kumene sikungachotseretu kuikidwa kwathunthu kwa malembo. Kwa iwo, njira yalamulo yamoyo yokha yokha yofikira pa kulingana kwa lamulo kwabwino kwa akazi.

Akatswiri ena apezanso lingaliro losintha. Kimberlé Crenshaw adatsutsa kuti kusanthula kwa m'njira kumavumbula mmene kuyambirira kungatetezere ndi kuvulaza akazi, kudalira pa nkhani yake. Mwachitsanzo, kuyambirira kungagwiritsiridwe ntchito kuletsa maprogramu olinganizidwa kuchotsa tsankhu la m'mbiri, pa dziko limene Limodzi linadziŵika poyamba kuletsa fuko ndi malamulo a kugonana. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, Chiphunzitso choyambirira chingathe kuchepetsa mphamvu zonga ngati chiwawa chotsutsana ndi Akazi, chimene chinamenyedwa mokulira mu [FLT:] United States v.[FF]

Kodi Kuyamba Kwawo Kungakhale Kogwirizana ndi Nkhani za Masiku Ano za Mabanja Anyamata?

Akatswiri ena odziŵa bwino za kuyambika kwa zinthu amanena kuti "kumasulira kofala kwa malamulo alamulo", kumene kumaphatikiza tanthauzo loyamba ndi kusintha kwa zinthu. Justice Stephen Breyer , ngakhale kuti si woyambirira, waitana njira yopezera malamulo ovomerezeka imene imalingalira zotsatirapo. Panthaŵiyi, akatswiri oyambirira onga [FLT:] Barnett [ amatsutsa kuti tanthauzo loyambirira la malamulo limateteza ufulu wonse wachilengedwe, kuphatikizapo kuyenera kwa akazi kuti adziwonjolere ku tsankhu la kugonana. Matanthauzo a [kuŵerenga [Genekizidwa] mwachidziŵikire] angafunikire kukhomereza kulinganiza kugonana, chitsanzo chofanana ndi chapamwamba kuposa kupenda kwake. Zimenezi zimapangitsa kuti pakhale umboni wosiyana wokhudza mbiri yakale.

Ntchito ya Kuphana ndi Kunyenga kwa Nyenyezi

Ngakhale pakati pa oweruza oyambirira, pali mkangano wonena za kulemera kwa chitsanzo. Woweruza Scalia anali wofunitsitsa kugwetsa zosankha zimene anakhulupirira kuti zinagamulidwa molakwa, kuphatikizapo Roe v. Wade ndi [[FLT:]] [FLT]] Paja pa zaka makumi ambiri. Majaji oyambirira [kapena kuti FLT] [FLT]] (kutsimikiziranso kuyenera kwa kuchotsa mimba). Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, Woweruza John Roberts anagogomezera kufunika kwa kuyang'ana decis, makamaka kaamba ka "miyambirizo" zimene zakhala zikudalira pa zaka makumi ambiri. Oweruza oyambirira ambiri pa makhoti ayamba kuyang'aniridwa kwa pakati pa milandu yapansi agwiritsira ntchito kuyang’anitsa mwachisa kwapansi ngakhale ngati aganiza kuti aganiza [Flk: Cregn]. [vrect.FF: "FF_n]

Kumaliza

Kutembenuza mawu oyambirira kumakhalabe mphamvu yaikulu m'kumasulira kogwirizana ndi lamulo, ndipo kugwirizana kwake ndi ufulu wa akazi nkovuta. Malamulo oyambirira sanatetezere mwachindunji kulingana kwa akazi, koma chinenero cha 14th Amendment cha "person" ndi "chitetezero cholingana" chingatanthauziridwe m’njira zimene zimachirikiza chilungamo cha amuna ndi akazi. Nkhani zojambula kuchokera ku [FLT: 0] v. Reed ku [FLT] United States v. Virginia [1] . Amasonyeza kuti Khoti Lapamwamba lavomereza kwakukulukulu lalamulo lamoyo la njira za kusankhana za kugonana, kugwiritsa ntchito mosamalitsa kuti osuliza oyambirira kaŵirikaŵiri monga opanda pake.

Komabe chiphunzitso choyambirira sichiri chachiŵalo. Akatswiri ena oyambirira ndi oweruza amakhulupirira kuti tanthauzo loyamba la Malamulo, lomveka bwino, limaletsa mitundu yambiri ya tsankho la kugonana ndipo limafunanso kupenda mosamalitsa. Ena amatsimikiza kuti luntha lachibadwidwe limalola ntchito zamwambo kudalirana pokhapokha ngati kusinthidwa ndi kusinthidwa. Nkhani yopitiriza ikusonyeza kuti kumasulira koyambirira kwa malamulo sikuli chabe kugwiritsa ntchito luso la zopangapangapanga zinthu zapamwamba chabe, kulingana, ndipo udindo wa judiary uyenera kupitiriza kudalirana ndi malamulo, malamulo, ndi kusintha kwa chikhalidwe, funso la mmene malamulo adzakhalirabe patsogolo. Kaya kumasulira koyambirira kuyenera kukhala ndi kulingana kwa kugonana kwa anthu kapena kaya kuyenera kukhala koyenera kumasulira mwalamulo.

Kuti muŵerenge zambiri, onani Cornell Information ya chitetezo chofanana , kukambitsirana kwa Amelika Bar Association kwa kufanana kwa mwamuna ndi kumasulira kwa lamulo, ndi lingaliro la [[FLT:] Supreme Court mu [FLT:] United States v. Virginia [1]