Malire a Kuopsa kwa Maupandu Aŵiri pa Nkhani za Uchigaŵenga ndi Chisungiko cha Dziko

Mfundo ya kuopsa kwa kaŵiri imaimira mfundo ya malamulo a boma, yotetezera anthu ku mavuto a kuyesedwa kaŵiri kuti aikidwe mlandu umodzimodzi. Ilo limakhala ndi mfundo za kumaliza, chilungamo, ndi chitetezo kwa maboma ochenjeredwa. Komabe, pamene zinenezozo ziphatikizapo uchigaŵenga kapena nkhani za chitetezo cha dziko, mfundo imeneyi ya malamulo yosatsimikizirika ndi yosagwirizana ndi malire. Makhoti ndi mabungwe a malamulo alemba mipata ya ziphunzitso zimene zimalola kutsendereza, kusiyanitsa, ndi ngakhale kuletsa kuyendetsa malamulo a boma. Nkhaniyi ipenda maluso alamulo a ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, mavuto oyambitsidwa ndi uchigaŵenga ndi milandu yauchitete, ndi kupsinjika kopitirizabe pakati pa ufulu wa munthu ndi ufulu wa anthu ndi gulu la odzisunga.

Maziko a Malamulo a Maupandu Aŵiri

Chiyambi ndi Nyumba

Chiletso cha kuopsa kwa kaŵiri chimatsatira lamulo la Roma ndi lamulo loyambirira, kupeza mawu m'mawu a lamulo a Chingelezi ndimo debet bis vaxari [1] . . Khoti Lalikulu siliyenera kuvutitsidwa kaŵiri chifukwa chimodzimodzi. Ku United States, lamangidwa m'Malamulo a Fit Emplete: "adzayenera kuikidwa kaŵiri m'maupandu a moyo kapena chiŵalo cha munthu. Khoti Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito chitetezero chimenechi kulongosola za malamulo operekedwa kudzera ku mu [FLT:]. Mary ndi "FLT] Mary. [12]

Chilungamo chachikulu cha lamulolo chakhazikitsidwa bwino: chimaletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito mabwalo amilandu mobwerezabwereza kuvutitsa munthu, chimapeŵa kupanda chilungamo kwa kufuna munthu kuchinjiriza chinenezo chimodzimodzicho kamodzi, ndi kusunga kutha kwa chiweruzo. Monga momwe Chilungamo Black chinalembera mu [[FL:0] Blue v. United States . (1957), ngozi yoŵirikiza kutetezera "munthuyo kuyang'anizana ndi maupandu ndi chitsimikiziro chothekera kupyola kamodzi kaamba ka mlandu wonenezedwa.

Pamene Mapazi Apangozi

Jeopardy amagwirizanitsa mlandu wa ajuli pamene ajuli aikidwa pa kampasi yolamulira ndi kulumbira; m'zengedwe lapampando, pamene umboni woyamba walumbira. Pamilandu ya liwongo, imamamatira pamene khoti livomereza. Upandu wotsatira, mlandu wa mlandu umakhala woletsedwa ngati chigamulo chosiyanacho sichigwira ntchito — monga ngati kulakwa kwa kuonekera kwa kufunikira kapena kuchonderera kwachipambano kwa woimbidwa mlandu amene amatsogolera ku kuzengedwa mlandu watsopano.

Kusiyana kwa Malamulo: Mmene Mafashoni Oika Mitembo Aŵiri

Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Yosiyana

Mwinamwake choletsa chachikulu kwambiri m'nkhani za uchigaŵenga ndi zachitetezo cha dziko ndicho chiphunzitso chogaŵanikana cha mafumu . Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiri sichimaletsa kumangidwanso ndi maulamuliro osiyanasiyana a khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Kachitidwe kamodzi kamene kamaswa malamulo a boma ndi boma, kapena malamulo a maiko aŵiri osiyanasiyana, kakhoza kuimbidwanso popanda kuswa Lamulo la Fit Amendment. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso chimenechi mu . United States (20) , likusunga kuti boma ndi boma ndi boma ndi lopatula pazifukwa pazifukwa pazifukwaŵiri.

M'maiko ambiri, ichi chimatanthauza munthu angayesedwe m'dziko lina kaamba ka milandu ya uchigaŵenga yogwirizana ndi upandu ndiyeno kuikidwa mlandu kapena kuimbidwa mlandu m'dziko lina kaamba ka machitidwe olakwika ofananawo. Mwachitsanzo, wokaikiridwa womangidwa ku Ulaya chifukwa cha kupanga chiukiro angayang'anizane ndi milandu ponse paŵiri m'dziko la Yuropu ndi United States, ndi kulephera kupereka chitetezero. Chiphunzitsocho chimathetsadi ngozi ziŵiri pamene maiko osiyanasiyana akukhazikitsa ulamuliro wogwirizana pa zigaŵenga za zigaŵenga.

Kudziimba Mlandu, Mkhalidwe Umodzimodziwo

Kuyesa kwina kwakukulu kumachokera ku mlandu womwewo. Kuyesa , kotengedwa ku , kotengedwa ku [[FLT]] . United States [1932], kufunsa ngati mlandu uliwonse umafunikira umboni wa mbali imene inayo siimatero. Ngati milandu iŵiriyo ili ndi mbali zosiyana, imalingaliridwa kukhala yopatuka ngakhale ngati ibuka kuchokera ku khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Zimenezi zimalola oimba mlandu ndi milandu yambiri yopatuka — chitsanzo, chiwembu, chiwembu chakuchirikiza gulu la zigawenga, ndi chida cha chiwopsezo — ngati chikachitika choyambiriracho sichikuchitika, ndipo ngati chikachitika cholakwika, chikachitika.

M'nkhani za uchigaŵenga, boma kaŵirikaŵiri limatumiza "kulamula molunjika" njira: kubweretsa zinenezo zachiwembu mu mlandu umodzi, milandu yachiwembu youkira kulowa m'dziko ku wina, kapena kugwiritsira ntchito kuswa malamulo monga Falls . Khoti la Apilo la Second Cester , mu United States v. Feliciano [1] (1993), linakhulupirira kuti kuchotsedwa pa chiwembu cha narconsback kuganiza chiŵembu chapaletso chapambuyo pake chifukwa cha kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo kochitidwa pa zochitika zofananazo, chifukwa chakuti zinthu zinasiyana.

Mabungwe a Asilikali ndi Makhoti a M’dzikolo

Kukhalapo kwa malamulo ofanana — makhoti aupandu ndi makomiti ankhondo — kumayambitsa mpata wina. Khoti Lapamwamba la United States mu United States lija lakhala linzake. Toth v. Quarles (1955]) linapereka lingaliro lakuti kuopsa koŵirikasa kungaletse kugamula mlandu wa nkhondo pambuyo pa kuzengedwa kwa asilikali kwa mlandu umodzimodziwo ngati kuchitidwa ndi anthu a boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti milandu iŵiriyo itumikira zikondwerero zosiyana. Pamene kuli kwakuti pambuyo pake yachepetsa chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro [FLD]] [FLD:3] yakhala ikuchitiridwa chitsanzo ndi chigamu cha nkhondo yoyesa upandu ponse paŵiri ndi chigamu cha nkhondo. Komabe, chigamulo cha nkhondo chachikulu cha [FUMF:] [FF] [F] [F] [F] [F] [Fold, Olma, On Klad KG:

Kubisa Zachinsinsi za Dziko Lonse ndi Njira Zina Zosaphera

Malo owopsa oŵiri amawonongekanso ndi kugwiritsa ntchito kutsekeredwa kwa anthu opatulidwa. Munthu amene wachotsedwa milandu yauchigaŵenga angaonedwebe ngati mdani, woletsedwa, kapena wokhala ndi chuma chozizira m'malo a chitetezo a dziko. Malamulo ameneŵa samalingaliridwa kukhala "kubwezera" chifukwa cha zolinga zowopsya ziŵiri, ngakhale ngati amakhazikitsa malamulo owopsa oletsa ufulu ndi katundu. Khoti Lapamwamba mu [FLT:] United States.

Kuyerekezera: Mmene Malamulo Ena Amagawira Ngozi Yaŵiri

United Kingdom ndi Msonkhano wa ku Ulaya

Kufikira kwa United Kingdom kwa kuthekera koŵirikiza kunalandira masinthidwe aakulu pambuyo pa zaka za 1990. Chiweruzo cha Criminal Act 2003 chinayambitsa kusalola maweruzidwe a milandu yaikulu — kuphatikizapo uchigaŵenga — kumene "umboni watsopano ndi wotsimikizirika" ukuwonekera. Zimenezi zinathetsadi lamulo lomalizira la milandu ya mabwinja. Kuwonjezerapo, Khoti la European Court of Human Rights, mu [FL:0] [FOL:]] Swergey Zoluchin v. Russia [[FLT: 1] [2009] [2009], zinagwiritsa ntchito "kayesedwe ka 4 pa Chikalata cha Malamulo. No. 7 a Msonkhano wa ku , umene umaletsa ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri (") mu chidani chachiphasoso. Komabe, UK yakhala ndi yopangika ndi yosagwirizana ndi chigamu, makamaka ponena za kutsimikizira kwa chigaŵengachi, chitsimikiziro cha chivomezo cha United States [F.] AF. [2] AF.]

Komiti ya ku Ulaya [[FLT: 0] Nes mu Idem mfundo

Mkati mwa European Union, Mfundo 54 ya Schengen Convention ndi EU Charter of Fundament Rights imakhazikitsa lamulo lamphamvu la zikwakwa zamphamvu kuti lamulo limeneli likhale logwira mlandu wachiŵiri m'boma lililonse la chiŵalo chigamulo chomaliza chikaperekedwa m'boma lina la mamembala a projekiti a Yuropu. Komabe, milandu ya uchigaŵenga kaŵirikaŵiri imaloŵetsamo zigaŵenga za mayiko osiyanasiyana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito chitetezo cha dziko lonse, monga ngati Chigawo cha 4 (2) cha Yuropu, chimene chimapereka chikalata cha mayiko kuti chiteteze "umboni zachikulu cha dzikolo. Chilungamochi chimachititsa kuti anthu asiye kulephera kuletsa mlandu. Komabe, milandu ya uchigaŵenga ingakhale yosaimbidwabe m’manja mwa anthu otsutsa zigamu za zigamuwenga za Belgium, ngati chigamu chigamulo cha dzikolo cha dziko la United States, chimene chimaloleza kuti chitetezere ku Belgium.

Canada ndi Khoti Lamilandu la Padziko Lonse

Chata ya Canada ya Ufulu ndi Ufulu, pansi pa chigawo 11 (h), imatsimikizira chitetezero cha ngozi kuŵirikiza kaŵiri, koma Bwalo Lapamwamba lazindikira kusiyana kwa milandu m’zigawo zosiyana. Mu R. Van Rassel[FL:1] (1990]), Bwalo lamilandu linakhala ndi mlandu ku United States kusanaletsedwe ndi mlandu wotsatira m'dziko la Canada kaamba ka khalidwe lofananalo, kugwiritsa ntchito "mlandulo" mmalo mwa kuyesa "mayendedwe". Zimenezi zimayendera ndi chiphunzitso chopatulidwa. Pambali za mitundu yonse, Chilamulo cha Chilamulo cha International Agena cha Chigamu (C) chimaphatikizapo mabim m'make a zigamu mu malamulo 20 mumkhalidwe wosiyana ndi milandu yosaimbidwa ndi kusazenga mlandu chifukwa cha zigamu za lamulo la dziko lonselo, ngati chigaweruzo chika chigaŵeruzo chotsutsana ndi mlandu chaumwi chauchimwi chaunyiro, chikano chotsutsana ndi chiwo, chikachimo chotsutsana cha chika chika chika chika cha

Kufufuza Nkhani m’Malo Oika Anthu Paupandu ndi Kulimbana ndi Uchigaŵenga

Kuzenga Mlandu wa Zacarias Moussaoui

Zacarias Moussaoui, "mlanda wa 20th , adaimbidwa mlandu ku United States kaamba ka chiwembu chogwirizana ndi ziukiro 11 . Kuzenga mlandu kwake kunadzutsa nkhaŵa za ngozi ziŵiri pamene boma linafuna kupereka umboni wakuti likanagwiritsiridwa ntchito poyambirira pa zigaŵenga zina. Pomalizira pake, Moussaoui anachonderera liwongo ndipo anaweruzidwa kukhala ndi moyo m’ndende. Komabe, kuvuta kwa mlanduwo kunagogomezera mmene mlanduwo — chiwembu, uchigaŵeruzo, ndi kuwononga ndege — momveka kuti ukhale ndi umboni wosiyana kapena kuchititsa ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri, chifukwa chakuti mlandu uliwonse umafunikira mbali zosiyanasiyana.

Kuphulika kwa Bomba: Pan Am Flight 103

Kuphulitsa bomba kwa Lockerbie kumasonyeza malire oŵirikiza kaŵiri a uchigaŵenga wa padziko lonse. Anthu aŵiri a Libyani anayesedwa pansi pa lamulo la Scotland pa khoti lapadera ku Netherlands. Wina anamasulidwa; wina wa kuimbidwa mlandu. Woimbidwa mlandu, Al-Amina Khalifa Fimah, pambuyo pake sanayang'anizane ndi mlandu wina, koma mlanduwo unadzutsa funsolo: Kodi akanayesedwa m’dziko lina, monga United States? Pansi pa mlandu wa U.S., lamulo lachilendo lopatula mlandu silimasunga ulamuliro wa U.S.

Guantánamo Bay Detaines

Detaines wosungidwa ku Guantamo Bay adayang'anizana ndi maupandu apadera. Ena anayesedwa pamaso pa magulu ankhondo ndi kumasulidwa kapena kuimbidwa mlandu, koma kukhalabe m’ndende monga "Adani ankhondo" ngakhale pambuyo pa kutha kwa ziweruzo zawo. Al Bahlil v. United States[FL:1] [2015], D. chigawo chinakhulupirira kuti kuchirikiza uchigaŵenga kunali upandu wankhondo wochitidwanso ndi bungwe la asilikali, koma Khoti Lapamwamba linakana kupenda. Nkhani ya ngati chigamulo cha boma chikazengedwa mlandu wa anthu wamba. Obama adatsutsa kuti chiphunzitso cha upandu wosiyana, koma m’boma, yafuna kubwezera chigamulo cha boma. [FT.FT.: FT.FF:

Kutsutsana kwa Mfundo za Malamulo: Kusintha Zinthu Kapena Kusintha Zinthu

Kutsutsana Kaamba ka Kutali

Ochirikiza kulola kumangidwa kwamilandu kwauchigaŵenga kwa nthaŵi zambiri amatsutsa kuti, mpangidwe wapadera wa ziwopsezo zamakono — kaŵirikaŵiri zochokera ku mayiko osiyanasiyana, kufalikira, ndi kuloŵerera — zimafuna kulolerana mwalamulo. Kachitidwe kamodzi kangaswe malamulo ambiri a maiko, kamaphatikizapo ponse paŵiri upandu ndi nkhondo, ndi kutulutsa umboni watsopano. Chiphunzitso chapadera, m’lingaliro limeneli, chimalemekeza ulamuliro wa dziko lirilonse ndi kulola ulamuliro uliwonse kuchirikiza zikondwerero zake. Ndiponso, chisungiko cha dziko lingafune kuti lilingaikidwe kukhala lokamidwa kapena kuyesedwa m'gulu lankhondo ngakhale pambuyo pa kuchotsedwa kwa anthu wamba, kuletsa kumasulidwa kwa anthu owopsa amene angakhale ogwirizanabe ndi ziŵembu zotsutsana.

Nkhani Zofuna Kuteteza

Otsutsa amanena kuti kusiyapo kuchotsapo mawu aupandu kaŵiri m'milandu yachisungiko ya dziko, kusiya oimbidwa mlandu ali osavuta kuchitiridwa nkhanza ndi boma. Iwo akuloza ku ngozi ya "kugula zinthu" ndi ozenga mlandu — kufuna ulamuliro waubwenzi pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kwina — ndi kulephera kwa maganizo ndi ndalama kwa mayeso ambiri. Chipani cha American Libertes Union (ACLU) chatsutsa kuti kulola maupandu otsatizana kuchitika chifukwa cha khalidwe lofananalo kumachititsa kulephera ndi kupempha mkulu wa boma kulanda. Katswiri wa zamalamulo Erin Murphy wazindikira kuti chiphunzitso chapadera cha "permits ponse paŵiri audindo a boma kuti apereke mlandu wa khalidwe limodzimodzilo, chimene makamaka chili chovuta pamene wozengedwa ndi wosungidwa ndi wotetezedwa ndi wandale kapena dziko lonse.

Kuitana Kusintha kwa Malamulo

Asinthi ena alinganiza kuchepetsa chiphunzitso cha maulamuliro apadera makamaka pa milandu ya uchigaŵenga, kaya mwa lamulo kapena mwa kusintha kochitidwa ndi lamulo. Mwachitsanzo, "Kudzisungira, Zotsatira Zofanana" chitsanzo chikaika mlandu wachiŵiri ngati woyamba unali wa zochita zofananazo, mosasamala kanthu za mfumu. Ena amachirikiza kukakamiza maulamuliro kuti apeŵe zochitika zongoyerekezera. Njira ya UK yolola maluwa kumene kuli "umboni watsopano ndi wotsimikizirika" imaimira maziko apakati — kusungitsa kutha koma kutsimikizira kwa umboni wotsimikizirika pambuyo pake m'nkhani za chisungiko cha dziko.

Zoyesayesa za Kugwirizanitsa Mitundu Yonse

Pamlingo wa mitundu yonse, mapangano onga ngati United Nations Convention for the Juncition of Terrist Bombings amafuna maboma kuweruza kapena kukayikira kowonjezereka, koma osasamalira ngozi ziŵiri mwachindunji. Bungwe la International Law Commission lafufuza "mabis m'maupandu a upandu wapadziko lonse, koma kupita patsogolo kwachedwa. Chizindikiro cha Roma Sigte chimapereka maziko amodzi, koma chimagwira ntchito kunena kuti ali mbali ya ICC. Pangano lapadziko lonse lokhudza uchigaŵenga wauchi wophatikizapo chiwopsezo chachikulu cha kuwopsa kwa milandu, koma chingafunikire kugonja kwakukulu pa ulamuliro.

Kumaliza

Malamulo amakhalidwe abwino oyendera limodzi amapanga njira zambiri kuti maboma apereke mlandu kwa munthu wina kwa kamodzi pa khalidwe limodzi. Zimenezi zimasonyeza kusagwirizana kwakukulu pakati pa zolinga za uchigaŵenga ndi za chitetezo cha dziko.

Zigaŵenga zikayamba kusintha, malamulo ayenera kupitiriza kukhazikitsa malire pakati pa ufulu wa munthu ndi chitetezo cha anthu onse. United States, United Kingdom, European Union, ndi mayiko ena a m’derali, koma palibe amene athetsa ndewuzo. Zaka zikubwerazi adzaona kuti makhoti ayamba kutsutsana ndi milandu ina, monga kuweruza milandu ya anthu achilendo amene anazengedwa kale ndi makhoti a m’madera amene akumenyana.

Pomalizira pake, kuchepa kwa ngozi ziŵiri m’nkhani za uchigaŵenga sikuli kokha nkhani ya zamalamulo yaukatswiri koma chisonyezero cha makhalidwe abwino aakulu: ukulu wa mapeto amene chitaganya chingakhoze kukwaniritsa pamene chiyang’anizana ndi ziwopsezo zazikulu, ndi kuchuluka kwa chitetezo chachibadwa chimene chidzaperekedwa kwa oimbidwa mlandu wa upandu waukulu koposa. Yankholo limakhala losatsutsika, ndipo mkanganowo udzapitirizabe kukhazikitsa lamulo lotsutsana ndi upandu kwa zaka makumi ambiri zikubwera.