Chitetezo Chokhalitsa: Mbiri ya Kuteteza Anthu Oopsa Kawiri m’Chilamulo cha ku America

Lamulo la kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri liri limodzi la zitetezero zolemekezeka koposa m'lamulo laupandu la America. Limatsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene adzayesedwa kamodzi kaamba ka mlandu wonenedwawo, chitetezo cholinganizidwa kuchinjiriza boma kuchenjereredwa, kutetezera ulemu wa munthu aliyense, ndi kutsimikizira kuti machitidwe alamulo ngomalizira. Nkhaniyi ikusonyeza mizu ya kuwopsa koŵirikiza kwa kuyambika kwa malamulo ake achingelezi, kupyolera mwa kuvomerezedwa kwake mu Find Emplete Amendment, ku mafotokozedwe ovuta amakono amene akupitirizabe kuumba malire ake.

Kuzindikira ngozi ziŵiri nkofunika kwa aliyense wopenda njira zaupandu za ku America, lamulo la lamulo, kapena mbali yaikulu ya ufulu wa munthu. Silamulo lachilendo koma chiphunzitso chamoyo chimene makhoti awongolera kuyankha ku zinthu zatsopano, kuchokera ku zolakwika ndi kuchonderera ku kugwirizanitsa pakati pa boma ndi olamulira a boma. Mwa kupenda mbiri yake ndi chisinthiko, timapeza chidziŵitso cha mmene lamulo limalinganizirira chifuno cha boma potsutsa kuyenera kwa munthu ndi ufulu wake ku ku kuumirizidwa ndi kuvutitsidwa.

Chiyambi cha Chilamulo cha Chingelezi

Lingaliro la ngozi ziŵiri silinayambike kuchokera ku kukhazikitsidwa kwa America. Mzera wake wa makolo unayamba ku England wa m'zaka zapakati, kumene lingaliro lakuti munthu sayenera kuzengedwa mlandu umodzimodziwo linabuka pang’onopang’ono kuchokera ku kutsutsana pakati pa ulamuliro wachifumu ndi zoyenera zamwambo. Makhoti oyambirira a England anavomereza pempho lodziŵika monga la autificist (ayenera kuimbidwa mlandu) ndi woweruza mlandu wachiŵiri], akumalola woimbidwa mlanduwo mwa kusonyeza kuti anali ataweruzidwa kale pa mlandu womwewo.

Pofika zaka za zana la 17, lamulo la Chicheŵa linapanga lamulo lamphamvu loletsa ngozi ziŵiri, ngakhale kuti linali losiyana kotheratu. Kuzengedwa mlandu koipitsitsa kwa Sir Thomas More mu 1535, mwachitsanzo, kunachitira fanizo kulephera kwa lamulo pamene ndale zadziko zidzakhala zopambanitsa mwalamulo. Komabe, lingalirolo linatenga monga mbali ya choloŵa chachikulu cha Angelezi cha ufulu, kuphatikizapo chitsimikizo cha Magna Carta kuti palibe munthu waufulu amene angalangidwe kusiyapo chiweruzo chalamulo cha anzake. Pamene atsamunda anadutsa Atlantic, ananyamula nawo miyambo yalamulo imeneyi.

America Wolamulidwa ndi Atsamunda ndi Lamulo la Nambala 5

Ku America, zitetezero za ngozi ziŵiri zinalipo makamaka mwa malamulo osalembedwa mmalo mwa malamulo alamulo omveka bwino. Komabe, maiko angapo anayesa ndi zitsimikizo zolembedwa. Massachusetts Body of Liberations ya 1641, mwachitsanzo, inalengeza kuti "padzakhala palibe munthu amene adzazengedwa kaŵiri chifukwa cha upandu umodzimodziwo. Mawu oyambirirawa anasonyeza malingaliro omakula akuti mphamvu ya kuweruza iyenera kuchepetsedwa.

Pambuyo pa chisinthiko, mtundu watsopanowo unayang'anizana ndi ntchito yomanga boma la boma lokhala ndi maulamuliro oŵerengedwa. Bill of Rights, wovomerezedwa mu 1791, adakhala ndi cholinga cha kukakamiza bomalo. Mpambo wachisanu unaphatikizapo mawu owopsa oŵirikiza m'ziganizo zake zomaliza: "Sipadzakhala munthu aliyense woikidwa ndi chiwopsezo chofananacho kuti aikidwe kaŵiri kuupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo. Mawu ameneŵa anatengedwa mwachindunji kuchokera ku lamulo la Angelezi, koma tanthauzo lake lenileni linatenga zaka mazana ambiri kuti afotokozetse bwino.

Kuli kofunika kudziŵa kuti chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiricho poyamba chinagwira ntchito kokha ku boma la boma la boma. Osati kufikira 1969, mu Benton v. Maryland . , kodi Khoti Lapamwamba linaphatikizapo mawu otsutsa mabomawo kupyolera m'Chisinthiko cha 14. Chigamulo chimenecho chinapanga chitetezero chofunika kwambiri chogwira ntchito kulikonse ku United States, kufutukula kwambiri kufika kwake.

Ziphunzitso Zalamulo Zofunika Kwambiri ndi Milandu Yochititsa Chidwi

Chiphunzitso cha Mfumu Yosiyana

Chimodzi cha zigamulo zambiri zotsutsana ndi . . . . Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, boma la boma ndi boma lililonse amaonedwa kukhala apadera. Chifukwa chake, kachitidwe kamodzi kamene kamaswa malamulo onse aŵiri a boma ndi a boma kakhoza kuimbidwa mlandu ndi mfumu iliyonse popanda kugwiritsa ntchito chiopsezo choŵirikiza. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikizira mfundo imeneyi mu [FLT: 0] United States v. Lanza (1922) ndipo pambuyo pake mu [[FLT:]] Barkus v.Illinonia (1959) ndi [FL:] United States v [FLD].5]

Chilungamo nchakuti mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo ungaunjikitse milandu iŵiri yosiyana pa mabungwe aŵiri osiyana a lamulo. Osuliza amanena kuti zimenezi zingatsogolere ku masunamo otsendereza otsatizana, makamaka m'nkhani zapamwamba. Khoti Lapamwamba linabwerezanso chiphunzitsocho mu Gridge v. United States (209), kunyamula kuyang'ana decisi kopitirizabe kuchirikiza kugwirira ntchito kwake, mosasamala kanthu za kukula kwa kufunikira kwake kutaya.

Pamene Mapazi Apangozi

Chitetezero ku ngozi ziŵiri chimayamba kokha pamene ngozi yapakhoti yayamba "kugwirizanitsidwa" mlandu wa ajuli, ngozi imakhala pamene ajuli aikidwa ndi kulumbira. Kuzengedwa mlandu pa benchi, kumagwirizanitsidwa pamene umboni woyamba walumbira. Nthaŵi imeneyi ingatsimikizire kaya kuzengedwa kwachiŵiri kwaletsedwa kapena kuloledwa.

Mu Crist v. Bretz [FLT :1] (1978), Khoti Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti lamulo la boma logwirizanitsa limagwira ntchito mofanana ndi maboma kupyolera mwa Kusintha kwa Zaka 14. Chigamulo chimenechi chinatsimikizira kugwirizana polongosola nthaŵi yovuta pamene chikopa cha ngozi ziŵiri chikukwera.

Kulephera ndi Kukopana

Kodi chimachitika nchiyani pamene mlandu utha mwamsanga chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa mlandu kapena pamene woimbidwa mlandu achonderera mwachipambano chitsimikiziro? Mayankhowo amawonetsedwa. Woimbidwa mlandu angawonedwe pambuyo pa kulakwa kwa mlandu ngati woweruzayo alengeza kulakwa chifukwa cha "kufunikira kwa "kulakwa" "monga ngati juli yaching'alakwa yoikidwa kapena cholakwika chachikulu cha procedation. Mlandu wa m'mabwalo United States v. Perez [1] (1824), Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti juliro yapamwamba ndi chitsanzo chowonekera bwino, kulola kuweruzanso popanda kuphwanya ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri.

Koma ngati woweruzayo mwadala achititsa mlanduwo kulakwa kuti ukhale ndi phindu lamachenjera, kuweruzanso kungaletsedwe. Mu Orogon v. Kennedy (, Bwalo lamilandu limakhazikitsa pepala lalikulu: kokha pamene woweruzayo achitapo kanthu ndi cholinga chofuna kuyambitsa mlandu wolakwa, muyeso wachiŵiri.

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu achonderera chitsimikizo ndi kupambana, lamulo lachisawawa nlakuti kuweruzanso kwakhala kololedwa, popeza kuti kuwopsa koyamba sikunathe. Komabe, Konsichushoni imaletsa kuweruzanso ngati khoti la audole lipeza umboni wosakwanira kuchirikiza chigamulo. Mu Bursks v. United States [19978]), Khoti linakhulupirira kuti kusinthidwa kozikidwa pa umboni wosakwanira kuli kofanana ndi kuchotsedwa, chotero kutsendedwanso. Kusiyanitsa kumeneku kumatsimikizira kumaliza kwa marevu, ngakhale ngati asinthidwa pa apilo.

Zilango Zosiyanasiyana ndi Kuyesedwa

Chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiri chimatetezeranso ku chilango chochuluka kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodzi. Funso lalikulu ndilo ngati malamulo aŵiri alamulo amafotokoza milandu imodzimodzi kapena yosiyana. Khoti Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa kuyesa kwapadera mu . . United States [1] [1932] ): ngati lamulo lililonse lifuna umboni wa mbali imene wina sakuchita, pamenepo ndi maupandu, ndipo chilango chochuluka chimaloledwa. Ngati lamulo limodzi liphatikizidwa ndi kulakwa kwa linzake, kulakwa konseko.

Mayeso ameneŵa agwiritsiridwa ntchito m'nkhani zosaŵerengeka, kuyambira kugulitsa mankhwala ndi kuba. Komabe, khotilo lazindikiranso kuti nyumba zoimira malamulo zingavomereze motsimikiza chilango cha kachitidwe kofananako pansi pa malamulo osiyanasiyana, malinga ngati kuli komvekera bwino kuti iwo akuona khalidwelo kukhala mlandu wosiyana. Cholinga chimenecho ndi nkhani ya kulinganiza kwa lamulo, osati lamulo lolamulidwa ndi lamulo.

Mafuta ndi Majeremusi Aŵiri

Nkhani zambiri zaupandu zimathetsedwa mwa kuchonderera, osati kuzenga mlandu. Kodi ngozi yoŵirikiza imatetezera woimbidwa mlandu amene ali ndi mlandu? Mwachisawawa, kupempha liwongoko kungatumikire monga chitsimikizo, ndipo kutsutsa kapena kukonzanso kungakhale kochepa. Mu Rickets v. Adamson [FL:1] (1987), Khoti linakhulupirira kuti woimbidwa mlandu amene waswa chikalata angatsutsidwenso pa milandu yoyambirira, ngakhale ngati panganolo linazichepetsa. Zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti kumaliza kwa kuchondererako kukhoza kukhala koyenera.

Mbali ina yofunika ndiyo chiletso pa mlandu pambuyo pa kulangidwa kwa woimbidwa mlanduyo atalangidwa kale kaamba ka mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo m'kuyendetsa. Mwachitsanzo, ngati munthu wamasulidwa ku upandu, iwo sakhoza pambuyo pake kuimbidwa mlandu waung'ono. Lamulo limenelo linakhazikitsidwa zolimba mu Bluck v. United States (1957), imene inakhulupirira kuti kumasulidwa pa mlandu waukulu kuweruzanso mlandu wocheperapo.

Kumasulira kwa Masiku Ano ndi Kutsutsana kwa Masiku Ano

Kuperekedwa kwa Malonda ndi Malo Opereka Ndalama

Limodzi la malo opikisana kwambiri m'malamulo amakono owopsa kaŵiri ndilo kaya kutaya katundu wa boma kapena zilango zina zosakhala zaupandu zingapereke chilango chachiŵiri. Mu United States v. Ursery [1] (1996), Khoti Lapamwamba linanena kuti kutayikiridwa kwa katundu wogwiritsiridwa ntchito m'maupandu sikumayambitsa ngozi ziŵiri. Chigamulo chimenechi chinagamula kugawidwa m’makhoti aang'ang'ono, koma osuliza akuti kuwonongeka kwa anthu kukhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito, makamaka pamene mtengo wa katundu wotayidwawo uli wowonongeka kwambiri ku chivulazo chochititsidwa.

Mofananamo, ziletso zauyang'aniro zonga ngati kuchotsa laisensi ya ntchito kapena kulandidwa kwa mapangano a boma kaŵirikaŵiri sizikulingaliridwa kukhala chilango kaamba ka zifuno za ngozi zoŵirikiza, ngakhale ngati iwo atsatira chigamulo cha upandu kaamba ka mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo. Khoti lagwiritsira ntchito mayeso a mbali zambiri kusiyanitsa pakati pa ziletso zachiŵeruzo ndi zaupandu, kusumika maganizo pa kaya chilolezocho chimapereka chiwongoletso, chosapereka chilango.

Kupitiriza Kuphana ndi Maupandu Aŵiri

Kugwiritsira ntchito ngozi ziŵiri pa chiweruzo cha achichepere kwasintha mowonekera. Breed v. Jones [1975], Khoti Lalikulu linatsutsa kuti kuletsa ana kuchita zinthu mwaupandu ndiko "kupulupudza" kumene pambuyo pake kumachitidwa mlandu. Khoti linagamula kuti kutaya ufulu wa ana mu nkhani zaunyamata kuli kowopsa kwambiri kuvomereza kutetezedwa kuŵirikiza kaŵiri. Mlanduwuwu umasonyeza sitepiti yaikulu pozindikira zoyenera za lamulo la achichepere oyang'anizana ndi kachitidwe ka boma.

Kupereka Mlandu Wowonjezera ndi Malamulo Oletsa Kufa

Maupandu aŵiri kaŵirikaŵiri samaletsa woweruza kupereka chigamulo chaukali chozikidwa pa zitsimikiziro zoyambirira, ngakhale ngati zikhululukiro zoyambirirazo zinali nkhani ya mlandu woyamba. Malamulo a Redivision ali ofala ndipo achirikizidwa monga njira yalamulo ya mphamvu zalamulo. Komabe, Bwalo Lamilandu lakhala likutsutsa kuti boma silingapereke umboni wa chigamulo choyambirira pa mlandu wozengedwa mlandu waukulu ngati chigamulocho sichinathere panthaŵi ya mlandu wapakalipa. Zimenezi zimatsimikizira kuti boma silimagwiritsira ntchito mlandu wotsatira monga chida kutsimikizira chigamulo chatsopano.

Kusintha Komwe Kungachitike

Maulamuliro amodzi adakali mbali yosulizidwa kwambiri ya lamulo lamakono la ngozi ziŵiri. Woweruza Ginsburg, wotsutsa mu Gughing v. United States , adatsutsa kuti chiphunzitsocho chimaluluza phindu la kuwopsa koŵirikiza chifukwa chakuti chimalola boma ku "yesa munthu wina kaŵiri kaamba ka upandu wofananawo" mwakungogaŵanitsa ulamuliro pakati pa maboma a boma ndi maboma. Maboma ena ayesa kuchepetsa chiphunzitsocho mwalamulo, koma lamulo la boma laluluza zoyesayesa zoterozo. Malamulo a Congress kuti athetsere kuyesayesako kachitidweko ayambitsidwanso zaka zaposachedwapa, koma palibe kachitidwe kalamulo kamene kanayamba kuchitika.

Mbali ina ya mkangano imaphatikizapo "uchifumu wa pakati" kupatulapo milandu yotsatizana ndi maboma aŵiri osiyana. Pamene kuli kwakuti Khoti Lalikulu silinalongosole mwachindunji zimenezo, makhoti aang'ono kaŵirikaŵiri agwiritsira ntchito lingaliro lapadera la maulamuliro kulola maulamuliro ambiri kumangidwa ndi maulamuliro ambiri kaamba ka khalidwe lofanana. Zimenezi zingayambitse kuŵerengeredwa mlandu kochepa ndi kukweza nkhaŵa zazikulu za kuyenera, makamaka pamene maboma alinganiza kufufuza kwawo.

Malingaliro a Padziko Lonse

Maupandu aŵiri amasiyanasiyana padziko lonse. Mayiko ambiri, kuphatikizapo Canada ndi United Kingdom, satsatira chiphunzitso cha maulamuliro osiyana. Mu European Union, lamulo la bis mu sem kaŵirikaŵiri amamanganso mlandu wachiŵiri wa kachitidwe kamodzimodziko pamene chiŵeruzo chomalizira chinaperekedwa ndi chiŵalo chilichonse. United States idakali yopambana kulola kuweruza kwa achifumu ambiri, mfundo imene yakopa chidwi kwa ochirikiza ufulu wa anthu ndi akatswiri a zamalamulo.

Kuzindikira njira zamitundu yonse zimenezi kungadziŵitse kusintha kothekera m'lamulo la America. Akatswiri ena a zamalamulo apereka lamulo limene lingapereke lamulo la boma loletsa kuzenga mlandu boma pambuyo pa mlandu wa mchitidwe umodzimodziwo, pokhapo ngati chiwongola dzanja cha boma chiri champhamvu kwambiri. Ena atsutsa kuti Bwalo Lapamwamba liyenera kulamulira . United States ndi kunena kuti kuwopsa kwa maupandu a boma kumaletsa kuweruza kotsatizana.

Kumaliza

Chikalata cha ngozi ziŵiri chidakalibe chitetezo chofunika m'dongosolo la chiweruzo chaupandu cha ku America. Chimaletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chachikulu kufooketsa oimbidwa mlandu kupyolera m'mayeso mobwerezabwereza, kutsimikizira kumaliza kwa ziweruzo, ndi kuchirikiza lamulo lakuti munthu sayenera kukakamizidwa kukhala ndi moyo mopitirizabe ndi chiwopsezo cha kuphedwanso. Komabe monga momwe nkhani ino yasonyezera, mawuwo sichiri choletsa chenicheni. Kugwiritsira ntchito kwake kumasintha malamulo ogwirizana, kumasulira kwa mlandu umodzimodziwo, ndi kuzindikiritsidwa kwa mfumu yoyang'anira.

Kwa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi a lamulo la lamulo, ngozi ziŵiri zimapereka kufufuza kolemera m'njira imene malembo achidule a lamulo angayambitse zaka mazana ambiri a kumasulira. Kugwirizana pakati pa kukhulupirika kwa m'mbiri, kufunika kopindulitsa, ndi malingaliro a chilungamo kukupitirizabe kuumba chiphunzitsocho. Pamene mitundu yatsopano ya mlandu . Monga ngati milandu yamitundumitundu yambiri ya boma kapena magulu a boma ogwirizana ndi ntchito za boma [1] merget, makhoti adzaitanidwa kuyeretsa malirewo kachiŵirinso.

Pomalizira pake, chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri silamulo lachibadwa chabe; ndi chisonyezero cha kudzipereka kwakukulu ku boma lokhala ndi mpata wake wokwanira ndi wosakondera wotsimikizira kuti liyenera kukhala ndi liwongo. Kudzipereka kumeneko kudakali kofunika lerolino monga momwe kunalili pamene Kukonzanso Koyamba kunakonzedwa.