Chiphunzitso Chogwirizanitsa: Kusintha kwa Zana la 20 m’Zaka za Zana la Amereka

Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Doctrine chimaimira chimodzi cha zitukuko zazikulu za lamulo la America, kukonzanso unansi pakati pa boma la boma ndi maboma. Pa maziko ake, chiphunzitsocho chimasankha makonzedwe a Bill of Rights . cholinga chake chinali kungokakamiza boma la dzikolo ndi boma la komweko kupyola pa Kukonzanso Komboletsa kwa . Kuyambira zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri, Khoti Lalikulu lakhala "ligwirizanitsa" kwambiri za chitetezo chimenechi, likuwonjezera ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha ndi kulinganizanso mphamvu zake m'dongosolo la boma. Chisinthiko, osati kukhala chimodzi, chochitika, chakhala chipikisano, choyendetsedwa ndi nkhani zosinthasinthasintha, mafilosofi, mafilosofi oweruza ndi a ndale zadziko.

Chiyambi: Kuchokera ku Barron Kufika ku Msonkhano Wachinayi wa M’mbuyomu

Chigamulo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba mu Barron v. Baltimore [1833]) adakhazikitsa zolimba kuti Bill of Rights inagwira ntchito ku boma la boma lokha, osati ku maboma. Woweruza wamkulu John Marshall analingalira kuti kutha kwa mlanduwo kunali kolinganizidwa monga ziletso pa mphamvu ya dziko latsopano, osati pa ulamuliro wa boma lapasadakhale. Zimenezi zinatanthauza kuti boma likhoza, chitsanzo, kukhazikitsa chipembedzo kapena kulanda katundu popanda kulipira, kwa nthaŵi yaitali monga momwe malamulo ake amalolera.

Demetrition ya 144 inasintha malamulo. Malo Ovomerezeka kapena Immunites Claus , Access Classias, ndi Aumenti Procession Claus adalinganizidwa kutetezera akapolo omasulidwa chatsopano ku chitsenderezo cha boma. Komabe, m'Nyumba ya Cases [1] [1873], Khoti Lapamwamba linachotsapo mwaŵi kapena Immunion Claus, poona kuti linatetezera ufulu waunyinji wa kukhala nzika ya dziko (monga kuyenera kupempha Congress). Chigamuchi chinatse khomo pa njira yolunjika ku malamulo a ufulu wa ufulu wa kutchula mawuwo. Mmalo mwake, khotilo linatembenukira ku Malamulo a ku Kprocesss Claus, amene akuletsa "Unice, kapena kulanda, ufulu wa moyo, kapena kulowa, potsatira lamulo.

Kwa zaka makumi ambiri, khotilo linakana lingaliro lakuti Acts Process Claus ingagwiritsiridwe ntchito kuphatikizapo Bill of Rights zitsimikizo. Hurtado . California [1] (1884), linakana kufuna maboma a akulu oweruza milandu, chitetezo chopezeka m'Malamulo a Fitempite Amendment. Lingaliro lofala linali lakuti "kutsatira mfundo zachiyambi" linali lingaliro losinthika limene linaloza ku malamulo ofunika a chilungamo, osati ku makonzedwe a kubwezera asanu ndi atatu oyambirira. Zimenezi zili ndi ufulu waukulu wofotokoza njira zawo zaupandu ndi ufulu wa anthu.

"Kugwirizanitsa" Mfundo Yometera

Posinthira pake panafika kuchiyambi kwa zaka za zana la 20, pamene Bwalo lamilandu linayamba kuzindikira kuti ufulu wina unali wofunika kwambiri kwakuti unali "kudziwitsa ufulu wolamulidwa" ndipo chotero anayenera kutetezeredwa pa ntchito ya boma. Nthanthi imeneyi, yodziŵika yosankha kuphatikizana , pang’onopang’ono, kupezedwa kwa ufulu wa kulankhula. Chikalata choyamba chinali Getlow v. New York [FLT:] (1925), kumene khomo linalingalira kuti, popanda kupanga chosankha chonse, kuti ufulu wa kukambitsirana kwa ufulu wa kulankhulana unagwira ntchito pa mawu kudzera m'malamulo a Claus. Ngakhale kuti Khoti la Gitlow pansi pa chigamulo cha kutsogolo, mlandu wa upandu wa kutsogolo, chigamulo cha ufulu wa kutsogolo kwa kugawa kwa nyuzipepala.

Maliro Ochedwa: Milandu Yokulira ya Zana la 20

Kuyambira m'ma 1920 mpaka m'ma 1960, Khoti Lalikulu linapanga kachitidwe ka kamodzi ka kuphatikiza chigawo chimodzi chakumanja panthaŵi imodzi, mlandu. Njira imeneyi, yochirikizidwa ndi Woweruza Benjamin Cardozo ndipo pambuyo pake ndi Woweruza Hugo Black (Kuphatikizapo Oyera Ogwirizana ndi Malo Oyenera kapena Immunies Clause), inatulutsa lamulo lolemera limene mu Fumion linawonjezera chitetezo cha boma ku maikowo.

Kusintha Koyamba Kumasula

Pambuyo pa Getlow, Khoti linaphatikiza mwamsanga ufulu wina wowonjezera. Nearbor v. Minnesota (131] anagwiritsira ntchito Free Plasce Claus kuchotsa lamulo la boma limene linaletsa nyuzipepala kufalitsa. [[FLT:] Cantwell v. [FLT] Conf:] [FLT] [[5] [1940]) kuphatikiza Free Evinglect, kutetezera kupempha kwachipembedzo. [FL:6]. v. Khoti la maphunziro a maphunziro a Claus [1947] (1947]) m'malemba mawu akuti Clasclass, omwe sangakhale "kukhazikitsa] malamulo a chipembedzo chomveka.

Zitetezero za Apandu

Warren Court (1953-1969) inayang'anira kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa kuphatikiza, makamaka m'njira zaupandu. Isanafike nyengo ino, maboma anali omasuka kwambiri kuika malamulo awo kaamba ka kufufuza, kufunsa, ndi kuzenga milandu. Zimenezo zinasintha ndi mpambo wa malamulo otchuka:

  • Mapp v. Ohio [FLT : [1961] Khoti linaphatikizapo kutetezeredwa kwa Demendment Yachinayi yoletsa kufunafuna kosalingalira ndi khunyu ndipo, modetsa nkhaŵa, kugwiritsa ntchito lamulo la kutsendereza milandu ya khoti. Umboni wopezedwa mosemphana ndi lamulo la boma sukanagwiritsidwanso ntchito m'kuzenga mlandu waupandu, kusintha kwakukulu m'malamulo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Chigamulo chimenechi cha onse chinaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa Sikisi Amendment kulangiza, kufunidwa kupereka boma kwa oimbidwa mlandu amene sakanatha kulipira wina m'nkhani zangozi. Chigamulo chosintha njira zodzitetezera za anthu ndi kutsimikizira kuti milandu yoyenera ikufuna kuimira lamulo.
  • Mira v. Arizona[FLT :] (1966:[FLT ]] pamene kuli kwakuti si nkhani yogwirizanitsidwa kwenikweni (inali kugwiritsira ntchito miyezo ya boma ku kusungitsa lamulo la boma ndi la boma pansi pa Masinthidwe achisanu ndi chisanu ndi chimodzi), [[FLT:] Mardama adakhazikitsa machenjezo tsopano otsutsana ndi kudzipha, amene onse amanena kuti atsatire.
  • .[FLT] . Louisiana [1] (1968): Anaphatikiza Kusintha kwa Sikisi ku mlandu wa ajuli m'milandu yaikulu, kufuna kuti maboma apereketse ajuli kwa anthu asanu ndi mmodzi m’mayeso oterowo.

Kuphatikizapo kwina mkati mwa nyengo imeneyi kunali ndi Kusintha kwa Kulamulira kwa Kuyamba kwa Kudzitsutsa Koyamba ([FLT: 0]] Malloy v. Hogan , 1964]; kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi mboni (] Pinterv. Texas, 1965; kumanja ku chiyeso cha mwamsanga ([[FLT:]4]]. [ku] kumbuyo kwa North Carolina v[FLT], 1967]; kuyenera kwa kupeza mboni ([FLT]] [FLT]]]). [zikhoterezonse zinagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi kutetezera ku ziwirizonse. [BLT]

Kusintha kwachiŵiri ndi Kupitirirapo

Kuthamanga kwa kulowa m'dzikoko kunayamba pambuyo pa ma 1970, koma sikunalekeretu. Mpata umodzi wodziŵika unatsala: Kuyenera kwachiŵiri kwa Kusintha kwa Kusunga ndi kunyamula zida. Kwa zaka makumi angapo, makhoti aang'ono analingalira kuti Kusintha kwachiŵiri sikunagwire ntchito ku maboma, kudalira pa mlandu woyambirira wa makumi aŵiri, [[FLT:] United States v. Cructshank[[FLT] [[12] [18]] [18], umene unakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kunyamula zida sikunali mwaŵi wa dziko lonse. Zimenezi zinasintha [[FLT] m'. v [FLT]. (20]) mu chigamu chachigamu chachika chachiŵiri, chigamu cha Suptlero chakuti ku Gawolo la Chigawa chachiŵiri chikufotokoza ku Chilungamo cha ku Chilungamo cha Allenciagi. Kupwiriti ya "F.]

Mofananamo, kuphatikizidwa kwa Opremendment ya Expression ya Expression Classias kunabwera Timbs v. Indiana [1] (2017), pamene Khoti linagwirizana kuti boma ndi maboma a m’dzikolo sangapereke ndalama zopambanitsa, monga ngati kulephera kwa boma kuphwanya lamulo. Nkhaniyi inatsimikiziranso kuti ngakhale malamulo ogwira ntchito ku maulamulirowo ayenera kumasuliridwa mosalekeza.

Makonzedwe Opanda Mbali: Osiyana Oŵerengeka

Ngakhale kuti kugaŵiridwa kwakukulu kwa bungwe la Gawo Lolamulira kwakhala kopanda lamulo. Lamulo la Third Amendment silinagwirizanitsidwepo ndi asilikali anayi m’nyumba za anthu, mwina chifukwa chakuti silinatchulidwe. Lamulo la Fi5 Amendment la kuweruza milandu yaikulu ([FLT: 0]] Hirtado v. California[FLD] [1], 1884]) silinagwiritsiridwe ntchito ku maboma; maboma ambiri amagwiritsira ntchito mayeso aumboni a aumboni m’malo mwa a juukulu. Kuzenga kwa Pearcent Refment kuyenera kwa mlandu wa anthu m'milandu yoposa $20 kumakhalanso kopanda kulembedwa, matanthauzo angakhaziyenerere awo kaamba ka milandu ya boma. Ndipo malamulo auendeng’ono a kuletsa malamulo a khotilo sanagwiritsidwe ntchito mopambanitsa, ngakhale kuti chigamu chigamu chigamulo cha mlandu chake.

Malo opatula ameneŵa amatsimikizira mtundu wosankha kuphatikiza. Khoti silinatenge mfundo "Zonse zophatikiza" zochirikizidwa ndi Jasitisi Black, zimene zingagwiritsidwe ntchito ndi makonzedwe onse a Bill of Rights Councils . Mmalomwake, ladalira pa kusanthula kwa Century Claus ndi mlandu pa mlandu umodzi kuti kaya kuyenera kuli kofunika ku ufulu ndi chilungamo.

Nkhani za Mantha: Mav. Osankha.

Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Doctive chakhala malo olimbanapo ndi nthanthi zopikisana za kumasulira kwa lamulo. Ochirikiza osankha kuphatikiza , kumene kwakhala njira yaikulu ya Khoti, amatsutsa kuti limalola kusintha, kusiyanitsa kwa boma pamene kulikutetezera ufulu wachibadwa. Komabe, otsutsa amanena kuti kuphatikiza zinthu mosankha kwagwiritsiridwa ntchito motsutsana, nthaŵi zina kufutukulidwa kwa ufulu ndipo nthaŵi zina kukana kuchita zimenezo mogwirizana ndi malingaliro a chilungamo cha "Franda ."

Kuphatikizapo kwa kampani, monga momwe kuchirikizidwa ndi Woweruza Black, kukalumikiza maboma ku miyezo ya ufulu wa anthu imodzimodziyo monga boma la boma, kuchotsa kusokonezeka kwake. Madanda anatsutsa kuti Mathayo kapena Immunio Claus adakhala ndi cholinga chokwaniritsa zimenezi, ndi kuti njira yosankhira ya Khoti inachititsa kuti pakhale ufulu wosayenerera. Ngakhale kuti kuphatikizanso lamulo sikunalamulire anthu ambiri, kupitirizabe kukhala malo otsutsa, ochirikizidwa posachedwapa ndi Chiweruzo cha Clarence Thomas, amene anatsutsa kuti ufulu kapena Imnicas Claus ndilone ndi galimoto yoyenera kugwirizanitsa.

Njira yachitatu, yophatikizapo , nthaŵi zina imagwiritsiridwa ntchito kulongosola milandu kumene Khoti limagwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights ku boma mwa kuvomereza kuchokera ku ntchito ya boma kapena ku Demendment ya 14. Mwachitsanzo, chitetezero chofanana cha Demendment ya Fith Amendment’s Claus (Kutetezera v. Truste ndi chiphunzitso chosintha, kutsimikizira kuti boma limatetezedwa ndi malamulo ofanana ndi aja a KGenetic Reformation ([FLD]B]BLAN] Briling v. True ])

Chiyambukiro pa Kumasulidwa kwa Chiŵeniŵeni kwa ku America

Chiyambukiro cha kuloŵetsamo chimakhala chachikulu. Zigamulo zisanaloŵe, zingatero . ndipo zambiri zinachita . "kusintha m'machita amene tsopano angakhale osagwirizana ndi boma: kukhazikitsa matchalitchi alamulo, kufufuza popanda chifukwa, kuyesa oimbidwa mlandu popanda uphungu, ndi kupereka chilango chankhanza. Kukhazikitsa maziko a ufulu wa anthu, kutsimikizira kuti mosasamala kanthu za kumene munthu amakhala, iwo akusangalala ndi chitetezo chofananacho kwa olakwa a boma.

Kusintha dziko kumeneku sikunakhale kopanda mkangano. Otsutsa a kumanja andale atsutsa kuti kugwirizanitsa mphamvu ya boma ya jaji, kufooketsa ulamuliro wa boma ndi kupanga zosankha za demokrase. Woweruza John Marshall Harlan II, mwachitsanzo, anasiyana m'mabwalo ambiri a Warren Court Consuctives, anachenjeza kuti Khoti linali kusintha Bill of Rights kukhala "umboni wa malamulo aupandu" kaamba ka maboma. Kumanzere, akatswiri ena amatsutsa kuti kuphatikiza kwa boma sikunapite patali, kusiya madera ambiri ngati chilango, malamulo a boma, ndi ufulu wa zachuma kuti apeze chigamulo.

Mosasamala kanthu za lingaliro la munthu, Incorporation Doctrine ndi maziko a lamulo lamakono la malamulo a America. Ilo lasintha Bill of Rights kuchokera ku chikalata cha kulephera pa boma la boma kukhala machinjirizo aakulu kwa munthu aliyense pa milingo yonse ya boma. Chisinthiko chimenechi chimasonyeza kusintha kwakukulu m’chidziŵitso: kuti ufulu wotsimikiziridwa ndi Konsichushoni sungadalire pa kuchitika kwa malire a boma.

Zochitika m’Zaka za Zana la 21 ndi Malangizo a M’tsogolo

Anthu ambiri osunga mwambo wa Khoti Lapamwamba m'zaka zaposachedwapa apitirizabe kugwiritsira ntchito kuphatikiza, ngakhale kuti kaŵirikaŵiri m’njira zosayembekezereka. McDonald v. Chicago (2010]) chinali chodziŵika chifukwa cha kukhala ndi kuchuluka kwa Masinthidwe achiŵiri monga a kuphatikiza. Timbs v. Indiana . , Khoti linali ndi linzake, koma Jastice anagwiritsira ntchito chivomezo chake kubwerezanso lingaliro lake lakuti mwaŵi kapena Immunius Claus ndi maziko olondola kaamba ka kuphatikizapo ndi kutembenuza.

Funso lina losavuta nlakuti kaya Khoti lingakhale ndi kuyenera kwa kusunga ndi kunyamula zida za kunyamula kaamba ka iwo eni kutsogolo kwa nyumba ([[FLT: 0]] New York State Rifle & Lamp; Pistol Association v. Breen[FLT:]], 2022, yosiidwa ku makhoti aang'ono koma yosaphatikizapo kuloŵetsedwa), kapena ngati mbali za Demendment Reconsoletion kapena Soundive Baille Bail Clausle zidzakhala zovomerezedwa mwalamulo. Khotilo lasiyanso kuthekera kwakuti ufulu wina suyenera kukwatira mu ufulu wa ufulu wa kumanja kapena kukwatira kapena kumanja kwa kusakhala kwaumwini kwaumwini. Zomwezo zingalingaliridwa ndi kuikidwa pansi pa njira yoyenerera, monga [vFofrefredberg.] [4] (5]).

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa kuphatikiza, Cornell Information’s imapereka kupenda kwachidule. .Oyez Project [ imapereka nkhani ya nkhani zambiri za zosankha zazikulu. Kupenda kozama kwa mbiri yakale, onani Akhil Reedmar’s [[FLT:] Bill of Rights: Creation ndi Recton [FLT:] (YPress University, 1998), imene imafufuza tanthauzo loyamba la Gemeticletry ku unansi wa Bill of Rights.

Kumaliza

Chiphunzitso cha Kusintha kwa Kusintha kwa Malamulo sikuli kwachilendo. Pamene kulembedwa kwa Khoti Lalikulu kukubuka ndi pamene mafunso atsopano akubuka ponena za kukhala kwaumwini, luso la zopangapanga, ndi mphamvu ya boma, chiphunzitsocho chidzapitirizabe kusinthika. Chimene chinayamba monga kuŵerengedwa kochepa, kulephera kwa kuŵerengera kwa mphamvu kwa kukhazikitsa ufulu wa anthu kwa 1449 kwakhala injini yamphamvu kwambiri ya kusungidwa kwa ufulu wa anthu. Njira ya kugaŵidwa kwa ufulu kwa anthu kwa zaka zoposa zana limodzi, yalumikizana ndi kutetezera kwake, kutsimikizira kuti ufulu wa Amereka si lonjezo la boma la boma koma kuti uli weniweni kwa nzika zonse, palibe kanthu komwe zidzakhalako. Kaya zoweruza zamtsogolo zidzawonjezera kukhalabe osasunga ufulu kapena kulongosolanso maziko ake, mkangano wa kufika kwa kutetezera koyenera kwa malamulo a boma, kupambana kwa masiku ano monga momwe zinaliri m'zaka za zana la 20 20 zikutsimikizira kukambitsirana za kukambitsirana kwa lamulo kwa lamulo lalikulu kwambiri. Chipangano choyambirira cha malamulo chaku.