Table of Contents
Njira Yolowera ku Ufulu wa Dziko: Mmene Zitetezero Zosankha Zimatetezera Ufulu Waukulu
Bill of Rights .H. Ziyeso khumi zoyambirira za kukonzanso ku Malamulo a U.S. "analembedwa poyamba kutsekereza boma la boma lokha. Maboma anali omasuka kunyalanyaza zitsimikizo zimenezo kusiyapo ngati malamulo awo oyendetsera anapereka chitetezo chofanana. Mpata umenewu unali chiwopsezo chachikulu kwa magulu ochepa, amene kaŵirikaŵiri anali ndi tsankho pa dziko ndi malo akwawo. Mchitidwe umenewu wakhala chimodzi cha ziŵiya zamphamvu kwambiri zotetezera ufulu wa anthu ochepa ku America, kutsimikizira kuti ufulu wapamwamba suli nkhani za ufulu walamulo zotchedwa kusankha gulu la ufulu , kugwiritsa ntchito mbali yaikulu ya Bill of Rights ku maikowo kudzera m'dziko la 145 Development.
Kusankha sikuli chochitika chimodzi koma kugawa mlandu pa ndandanda. Khotilo limafunsa ngati kuyenera kwapadera kuli “kutsimikizira lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa” kapena“ kugwirizanitsa ndi njira ya ku Amereka ya chilungamo. Ngati kuli, kuyenera kumaphatikizidwa ndi kumanga maboma. Mosiyana ndi kuphatikiza pamodzi ndi mlandu . Kusintha kulikonse panthaŵi imodzi, kugamula kosankha ndiko kuchititsa Khoti kupenda kufunika kwa ufulu uliwonse. Njira imeneyi yadala yakulitsa malo a chitetezo a anthu ang’onoang’ono kuzungulira dziko lonse, kuyambira ku kulankhula mwaufulu ndi kusonkhana kupolisi ndi kutetezera.
Kuchokera ku Barron Kufikira ku Gitlow: Genesis wa Kusankha
Nkhaniyo ikuyamba ndi Barron v. Baltimore (1868), kumene Woweruza Wamkulu John Marshall anakhulupirira kuti Bill of Rights inagwira ntchito kokha ku boma la boma. Kwa zaka makumi angapo pambuyo pake, maboma anganene kuti mawu oletsa, kuchita kufunsa, kapena kukana milandu ya ajuli popanda kuswa malamulo a boma. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiweniweni, Demende la 1450 (1868) inayambitsa Boma la Classiodenti [: “Kupanda boma lililonse lidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira ya lamulo. Kwa zaka zambiri, Khoti lalikulu linakana kugwiritsira ntchito lamulo limeneli kukhazikitsa ufulu, kuopa dziko.
Posinthira pake panafika [[FLT: 0] Getlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow, wokonda social, anaimbidwa mlandu pa lamulo la upandu la New York logaŵira kapepala kotchedwa Leall Big Modemon [[FLD]]. Khoti Lapamwamba linachirikiza kutsimikiza kwake koma, kwakukulukulu, linalengeza kuti “pakali pano tingatsegule ndi kuganiza kuti ufulu wa kulankhula ndi wa manyuzipepala n’ngotetezeredwa ndi Comprisment kuchokera ku Bridment ku Couragement ndi Coust Resting ndi Couverstionstionstion, yokhayokhayokha ndi ‘ yotetezeredwa ndi njira yoyenerera ya ku Demendermergametion yochokera ku United States. Division direction (71) kumbuyo kwa chivoti cha Malamulo cha Malamulo onse, ndi chivomeretso chosanjeko (Chingth Revisions) chosanja cha Malamulo chosanja limodzi).
Mmene Makopera Osankha: Kuyesa Ufulu Wolinganizidwa
Khotili lagwiritsa ntchito mayeso aakulu aŵiri kuti ligamule ngati ufulu uyenera kuikidwa. Choyamba, chinafotokozedwa mu Palko v. Connecticut [FL:1] (1937], , imafunsa ngati kuyenera kuli “kutsimikizira m’lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa" kotero kuti“ dongosolo loyenera ndi lounika la chilungamo lingakhale losatheka popanda icho. Pansi pa muyezo umenewu, Khoti linaphatikizapo mawu a First Ameinment, jopy, ndi msonkhano, Demendment yachinayi yotetezera kufunafuna kosalingalira, ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo kwa Fireverset Reconsoletion. Mlation yachiŵiri, mu [FL.Foct2] v. Louisiana: [1968]
Kusankha kuli kosankha kwenikweni chifukwa chakuti limalola Khoti kulingalira kufunika kwa kuyenera kwa ufulu wa munthu ndi chitetezo chochepa. Mwachitsanzo, ufulu wa Fite Amendment ku mlandu waukulu wa oweruza asanaweruze mlandu unaonedwa kukhala wosadalira mfundo ndi wosaphatikizidwa. Panthaŵiyi, kuyenera kwa kutsutsa kumadzikondera [[FLT: 1] kugawana ndi kuteteza kwa munthu mmodzi. Malloy v. Hogan (1964]), mlandu umene unakhudzana mwachindunji ndi anthu a fuko linatsendedwa kuvomereza mlandu wapolisi. Kachitidweka kanali ka pulogalamu ya : kuyang'anira zochitika za m'mbiri, zamakono, ndi ngozi zenizeni za mkhalidwe wa chiweruzi.
Kuteteza Mawu Ang’ono: Kusintha Koyamba
Kulankhula ndi Kusonkhana Mwaufulu
M’chikalata cha First Amendment ndilo maziko a kuchepetsa kwa anthu ochepa. Pambuyo pa Gitlow, khotilo likupitirizabe kulankhula, kusindikiza, kusonkhana, ndi kuchonderera. Denge v. Oregon [1937] [1937], Khoti linagonjetsa lamulo la boma loletsa kulowa m'chipani cha Komyunizimu, kuchititsa kuti ufulu wa msonkhano ukhale “ngati mkhalidwe wa moyo wathu monga kuyenera kwa kulankhula kwaufulu." Kutetezedwa kumeneku kunalola magulu andale ang'onoang'ono kulinganiza popanda kuopa kumangidwa. [FLD:] CP. [FLD [FF 55]
Kugwiritsira Ntchito Chipembedzo Mwaufulu
Zipembedzo zochepa zapindulanso. Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940), khotilo linaphatikiza Free Execree Claus , kulola Mboni za Yehova kugaŵira mabuku achipembedzo ngakhale kuti pali lamulo loletsa boma. Shertbert v. Verner [1963]), Khoti linagwiritsa ntchito mayeso aulereshoni ku South Carolina, kukana ntchito kwa tsiku lachisanu ndi chiŵiri la Adventist amene anakana kugwira ntchito pa Loŵeruka. Pamene kuli kwakuti nkhani zina pambuyo pake zingafana ndi [FLT:]. Smith Smith [FLT:] (1990) kuyesa kwachipembedzo kopesengwa kwa anthu ochepa.
Kuteteza Anthu Ang’ono: Kuphwanya Malamulo
Kusankha kwakhala kofunika kwambiri kwa mafuko ndi achuma ang’onoang’ono m’dongosolo la chiweruzo. Warren Court (1953-1969) inasintha njira za upandu, kuphatikiza zitsutso zambiri zoletsa machitachita a nkhanza a boma.
Lamulo la Exclussion: [[FL:0] Mapp v. Ohio (1961])
Mu [[FLT: 0] , koma anakana kufuna kuti maboma apeze umboni wosakhala wa lamulo. Ilo linapanga dongosolo lachilungamo la malamulo la Fourne Amendment (1949), khoti linanena kuti kutetezera kwa Couternetic ku kusanthula kosalingalira kunagwiritsidwa ntchito ku maboma [ mfundo yakuti [, koma kukana kufuna kuti pakhale malamulo opezeka popanda lamulo. Kulakwako kunapangitsa dongosolo la malamulo aŵiri: aang'ono m'khoti: analandira lamulo lotsendereza, koma aja a m’khoti. Ohio Dollree Map’s, popanda chilo, kuyang'ana kaamba ka kuimbidwa, ndi kupezedwa kwa zonyansa. Iye anaimbidwa mlandu wopatulidwa pa umboniwo. Khoti lalikulu, kuchotsa lamulo la lamulo la boma mu [Flpt:]
Kuyenera ku Uphungu: [[ML: 0] Gideon v. Wainwright [1] (1963)
Clarence Earl Gideon, mwamuna wosauka yemwe anali ndi maphunziro asanu, adapatsidwa mlandu wa kuswa malo osungirako zinthu ku Florida. Iye anapempha loya; boma linakana chifukwa chakuti Florida yokha ndi uphungu woikidwa pa milandu ya imfa. Iye anachita kudzitetezera kwake ndipo anaimbidwa mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti ufulu wa Sixth Amendment unali wofunika kwambiri ndipo unaikidwa pa Gemeterment. “Lawyers m'makhoti aupandu ndi wofunika, osati kulemera, . Woweruza Black analemba. [[FLD:] Gideon .]
Chitetezo pa Kudzivulaza: [[FLT: 0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966]
Manda . Marloy v anachenjeza [1] “Muli ndi kuyenera kwa kukhala chete tsopano [1] Ndiko kokha chifukwa chakuti Khoti linaphatikizapo ufulu wa Kusintha kwa Zamphumphu kwachisanu [[FLT:] Malloy] v [[FLT:]. Hogan [[FLT] [64] [1964] [I]) ndipo kenaka inagwiritsa ntchito kukonza malamulo a prophylactive mu [[FLT: 4.] Mandanda [[FL:5]. Ernesto Mira, munthu waumphaŵi wa ku Mexico-Mexian, adafunsidwa kwa maola ambiri popanda kuuzidwa kuti akhalire kusuk' kapena uphungu. Kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kwaukwaniridwa kwake kwa lamulo lotsutsa lamulo loikidwa ndi lotsutsa lamulo la boma lakwanizakuti, lomwe limalandira chikalata cha polisi chakumapeto chakunja, chikalata cha .
Chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo: [[FLT: 0] Robinson v. California [1] (1962) ndi Kupitirira
Chiletso cha Eleh Amendment chinaikidwa m'chiletso chankhanza ndi chachilendo Robinson v. California , kumene Khoti la California linagonjetsa lamulo la California limene linapangitsa kumwerekera ndi mankhwala kukhala mlandu. “Sizikuoneka kuti pa nthaŵi ino Boma lililonse liyesa kupangitsa munthu kukhala wodwala maganizo, . Chiweruzo chimenechi chachititsa magulu a anthu kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama zopotozetsa (kuphatikiza kwa mafashoni a mtundu wa Clausus mu [FLT:]] Timbs. Indiana v[FLT]] (209) ndi kutsendedwa kwa mankhwala osokoneza matenda ofala kwambiri. [Ilt]
Kutetezera Kulingana mwa Kutsatira Zolinga: Kusankhana Kwamakono ndi Ufulu Waukulu
Chignome [1] (1897), kutsimikizira kuti maboma sangatenge katundu popanda kulipira chabe. Chitetezo cha Fit 5 Commission chakhala ndi lamulo la Gwirikiti la Kutenga Claus ( Chahicago, Burlington & Quincy Railrand v. Chikalata cha Chigonjo [ [1897]]), kutsimikizira kuti maboma sangatenge katundu popanda kulipira chabe , chitetezo chofunika kwa eni dziko okhala ndi malo ochepa omwe analanda mwa kumbuyo kwa chigawo chapamwamba. Kuyenera kwachiŵiri kwa kusunga ndi kunyamula zida kunaloŵetsedwa mu [[FLT:] McDonald. Mdol. M City of Chicago: [1] (20) mlandu wobweretsedwa ndi wodzifunira wodzilamulira m'manja wotchuka.
Mwinamwake, kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwamakono kosankha ufulu wa anthu ochepa kunabwera pa nkhani za ukwati wolingana. Obergefell v. Hodges [1] (2015), Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa 14 ndi kutsimikizira okwatirana kukhala ufulu wofanana wokwatirana. Pamene kuli kwakuti Khoti silinadalire pa kuphatikiza ndi kuphatikiza [1] Ilo linagwiritsanso ntchito chiphunzitso chachidziŵitso choyambirira: kuyenera kwa kukwatira. Popanda kugawa ufulu wosankha, lingakhale likupitirizabe kukana ufulu wa ukwati kwa okwatirana, kupanga chiweruso cha kudutsa kwa mathanyula, kupanga chiwongo cha kuyang'anizana ndi malingana.
Ufulu Wosaloŵetsedwamo ndi Chiyambukiro Chawo pa Uchichepere
Malamulo onse a Boma la ufulu sagwiritsidwa ntchito m’mayikowa. Lamulo la Findth Amendment la Findromment silinagwirizanitse lamulo la khoti la Find , choncho maboma angapereke mlandu mwa kufalitsa kapena kudandaula. Mchitidwe wachiwiriwu ungasokoneze anthu ochepa amene angadzapeze phindu pa kuweruzidwa kwa ajuli akuluakulu. Kuyenera kwa bungwe la Gendetic Amendment ku mlandu wa ajuli sikunaloŵetsedwe m’boma, choncho maboma angachepetse milandu ya ajuli pankhani zachiŵeru, zimene zingakhudze anthu ochepa opereka masuti a kukondera. Lamulo lachiŵirili linangophatikizidwa mu 2010, ndi kuperekedwa kwa lamulo loletsa kulakwa kwa audindo odzitsutsa ufulu wa anthu ochepa.
Malamulo osankha amatanthauza khotilo kupendanso ufulu wosagwiritsidwa ntchito m’njira yogwirizana ndi kusintha kwa mikhalidwe. Mwachitsanzo, makonzedwe opambanitsa a kuperekedwa kwa Reighth Amendment sanagwirizanitsidwe mwalamulo m’lingaliro lolamulira, koma nthaŵi zina makhoti aang’ono agwiritsira ntchito njira yoyenerera. Ngati boma linayenera kutengera njira ya belo imene imaletsa oimbidwa mlandu ochepa kwambiri, khotilo lingasankhe kuphatikizapo muyezo wa kuwonjezera wa Bail Claus kuti lipereke muyezo wa dziko lonse.
Mapeto ake: Chitetezo Chake pa Ufulu Waung’ono
Kusankha Kusintha sikuli kutsalira kwa m'ma 20 a chigawo chapakati cha juristu. Chidakali chiphunzitso chamoyo chimene chimasintha ku ziwopsezo zatsopano pa ufulu wa anthu ochepa. Pamene boma lipereka chitsutso cha lamulo chotsutsa chiweruzo cha fuko, Coprind Amendment yophatikizidwa imapereka chitokoso cha mwamsanga. Pamene apolisi a boma achita nawo ntchito yophera fuko, Kusintha kwa Four Amendment kumapatsa oimba mlandu chida chotsendereza. Pamene boma liika chigamulo cha adrachians pa mwana wa mtundu, kuwonjezerako kwa Sevenih Reformation kungapereke mpumulo.
Magulu osankha asankha ndiwo amasankha kutsekerezedwa ndi kutetezedwa kwake . Khotilo lingawonjezere chitetezo pamene chitaganya chikusintha. Latsimikizira kuti anthu a ku America m'dziko lililonse akusangalala ndi ufulu wofanana, ufulu wocheperapo, mosasamala kanthu za tsankho la kumaloko kapena kusintha kwa ndale. Magulu ochepawa, akukhala kusiyana pakati pa kutonthozedwa ndi kumvedwa, pakati pa kulangidwa popanda uphungu ndi kutetezedwa, pakati pa kufufuzidwa popanda chifukwa ndi kumasuka ku ku kuloŵerera kosayenera. Pamene dziko likuyesetsana ndi mikangano yopitirizabe yokhudza ufulu wa boma, kusintha kwa apolisi, ndi kufanana, gulu lachisayene, lidzapitirizabe kutumikira monga mlawu walamulo umene umapititsa Bill ofil of Rights ku maiko ndi m’manja mwa anthu amene amafunikira kwambiri.
Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa nkhani zazikulu ndi kupita patsogolo kwa mbiri ya kusanthula, chezerani ntchito yopereka malingaliro onse, Cornell Legin Information Institute kaamba ka kusanthula chiphunzitso, ndi [[FLT:] SCOUSBOLY kaamba ka kusanthula kwamakono kwa kuphatikizapo kwa chigawo cha Supreme Court .