Chiyambi cha Chiphunzitso Chosintha

Chiphunzitso cha Incoroporation Doctrine ndi maziko a lamulo lalamulo la America, akumafotokoza kugwirizana pakati pa Bill of Rights ndi maboma a boma. Pamene Bill of Rights inavomerezedwa mu 1791, inagwira ntchito kotheratu ku boma la boma, kusiya maboma aufulu kukhazikitsa malamulo awo pa nkhani, chipembedzo, njira zaupandu, ndi ufulu wina waukulu. Makonzedwewa anasintha kwambiri pambuyo pa nkhondo yachiweniweniweni ndi kutengera ufulu wa 140 mu 1868. M’zaka zotsatira, Khoti Lali Lali Lalikulu linamasulira Chigwirizano cha Claus Claus kuti “atsenso mfundo za Boma la ufulu wa anthu ambiri a m'dzikolo, kuteteza maboma ndi akwawo. Lerolino, chiphunzitsocho chimatsimikizira kuti nzika ya ku California ili ndi ufulu woyambirira monga wina mu New York, wotetezeredwa ndi womangidwa ndi anthu aupandu m’boma la Texaka.

Ziphunzitso ziŵiri zopikisana zaumba chisinthiko cha chiphunzitso. Kuphatikizapo kwa [FLT ,] kumatsimikizira kuti Kusintha kwa 14 ndi Kusintha kumaloŵetsa Bill of Rights livertem yonse. Kusankha kuphatikiza , kufika ku Khoti, kumaphatikizapo ufulu, kuphatikizapo, nkhani, kuyesa aliyense kutsutsana ndi lingaliro lakuti “kuyenera kuli kwachidziŵitso cha ku Amereka. Chotulukapo nchamphamvu, nthaŵi zina, chosiyana, chikapitiriza. Kumvetsetsa mmene Incolution Doctriness imagwirira ntchito. Kuzindikira mmene Incount imachitira ndi malamulo auniko ndi malamulo a United States.

Chiyambi cha Chiphunzitso Chogwirizanitsa

Dongosolo la 14 la Dongosolo la Kukonza Malamulo la 14 la Claus

Chigawo 1 cha 14neth Amendment chikupereka kuti “Boma [na] lipange kapena kukhazikitsa lamulo lililonse limene lidzatsekereza mwaŵi kapena kuteteza nzika za United States; ndiponso Boma lililonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo; kapena kukana munthu aliyense m’ulamuliro wake chitetezo cholingana cha malamulo. [FL:] [FL:0] Priviges kapena Immunite Claus [[FLT:] [1] adakhala ndi zigamu za Clausdos [[FLD] [1], kuletsa ufulu waukulu kutetezera ufulu wa akapolo ndi nzika zake za boma, kapena kuletsa kulanda kwake kopanda mphamvu zake zazikulu. Koma [FL:] Casess [12] [197], monga lamulo lotsimikizirika, kuti chiletse ufulu wa boma, chikhoti chake cha chigamu chigamu, chigamu chigamu chake cha chikalata cha National, kapena chikalata cha Boma.

Kusintha kwa Zinthu Kukachitika

Pambuyo pa Kusutako , koma kunali kufikira mathirakiti, kutembenukira ku [[FLT .FLT] Fact Clause monga njira ina. Khoti linayamba kufotokoza za kuloŵetsedwa kwa zaka za zana la 19, koma linalipo kufikira [[FLT:] Gitlow v. New York [19] [19] [19] [1925] kuti chiphunzitso chamakono chinayamba kuoneka. [[FLT:] Gwit], Khotilo linalingalira kuti, popanda kugamulatu kwa ufulu wonse wa kulankhula kwaufulu kupyola njira ya Clausdia. Kutsegulira kwa kutsegulira chitseko cha chiwonkhomo cha chigumula cha chiwo. Kuphatikiza zaka makumi asanu ndi chimodzi, kuwonjezera Malamulo onse, kuti “kuyesera kuyenera kuyesa kukwaniritsa ufulu wa kulakwa kwa“

Milandu Yaikulu ya Khoti Lalikulu

Kusintha Koyamba kwa Malamulo

  • Gitlow v. New York (1925): Benjamin Gitlow anaimbidwa mlandu pansi pa lamulo laupandu la New York logaŵira mapepala a socialism. Khoti linakhulupirira kuti chitsimikizo cha First Amendment cha ufulu wa kulankhula chimagwira ntchito ku maboma kudzera ku Servery Claus, ngakhale kuti linatsimikizira chitsimikizo chake chifukwa chakuti mawuwo anabweretsa “ngozi ndi yomwe ilipo.” Mlanduwo unasonyeza poyambira kuphatikizapo Malamulo Oyamba.
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940): Kukulitsa Free Execree Claus ku maboma, kutetezera kupempha kwachipembedzo.
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947): [[FLT :1] Kuphatikiza Kukhazikitsa Claus, kutanthauza kupatukana kwa tchalitchi ndi boma ku zigawo za sukulu zakumaloko.

Ufulu wa Apandu

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Doltree Map anaimbidwa mlandu wozikidwa pa umboni wotengedwa mkati mwa kufunafuna kosakhala kwa lamulo. Khoti linanena kuti lamulo la Kusintha kwa Chinayi la Kuchotsapo Lamulo [1] Kuletsa kugwiritsira ntchito umboni wopezedwa mwalamulo kumakhoti a boma. Chigamulo chimenechi chinasintha njira za upandu wa boma mwa kulamula apolisi kupeza zilolezo kapena kukwaniritsa zimene zinavomerezedwa.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Clarence Gideon, Mkwiyo waumphaŵi ku Florida, adakanidwa loya. Khotilo linatsutsa kuti Kusintha kwa Sikisi kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kuli kofunika ndipo limagwira ntchito ku kuzenga milandu koyambirira, kupambana [[FLT:] BETS v. Brady[[FL:3] (192]). Malo tsopano ayenera kupereka loya kwa woimba mlandu aliyense woyang'anizana ndi milandu yaupandu.
  • Mira v. Arizona (66): Ernesto Miranda anaimbidwa mlandu chifukwa cha kuulula kopezedwa popanda kuuzidwa za ufulu wake. Khoti linatsutsa kuti mwaŵi wachisanu wa Kusintha zinthu motsutsana ndi kudzitsutsa umafunikira apolisi kutsutsa “machenjezo a Mira” asanaimbidwe mlandu. Chiweruzo tsopano chimatsekera boma ndi lamulo la kumaloko.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Anaphatikiza Kusintha kwa Chisanu ndi chimodzi ku kuweruza milandu ya ajuli yowopsa. Khoti linagwiritsira ntchito “kulungama kwachibadwa , kuwona kuti kuzenga mlandu kwa ajuli kwazikidwa kwambiri ku jurisprudence ya Anglo - America.

Chachiŵiri, Chachisanu, ndi Machimo Asanu ndi Chisanu

  • McDonald v. City of Chicago (2010): Khotilo linaphatikizapo kuyenera kwachiŵiri kwa Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa kusunga ndi kunyamula zida zankhondo kwa munthu mwini, kugonjetsa chiletso cha Chicago cha mfuti yammanja. Chigamulo chimenechi chinasonyeza kuti kuyenera kudziŵika mu Dicuum of Columbia v. Heller (2008)] imagwira ntchito ku boma ndi maboma akwanu.
  • Benton v. Maryland (1 969): [[FL:1] Anaphatikizapo chitetezo cha Coyamba Coprementement ku ngozi zoŵirikiza.
  • Robinson v. California (1962): Anaphatikiza lamulo la Le8 Demendment la chiletso chankhanza ndi chachilendo, kuigwiritsira ntchito ku malamulo a boma oletsa anamgoneka.

Si ufulu wonse umene waikidwa. Mpando wa Third Amendment (kuphatikiza asilikali), lamulo lalikulu la ajuli la Fitempite ( Hurtado , California , 1884), ndi mlandu wa ajuli m'makhoti a boma. Malo a khoti osankhidwa ndi bungwe la Court akaphatikizapo ufulu wa dziko lonse, ngati kuyenera kwa kuweruza kwa ufulu wa boma kwakhala kofunika kwambiri.

Kugwirizana ndi Malamulo a Magulu Ogwirizana

Chikalata cha Inshopporation Doctrine chimakhazikitsa malo a pansi ovomerezeka a munthu mmodzi. Maboma sangapereke chitetezo chachikulu. Malamulo a Federal amapitanso kutsogolo: Nyumba zikhoza kukulitsa ufulu kupyola pa malamulo alamulo, ndipo zingapange njira zothetsera za malamulo zimene zimachotsa magawo otsalira chiphunzitso. Ndiponso, Nyumba za malamulo zili ndi mphamvu pansi pa Desiki 5 la Kukhazikitsa malamulo oyenerera, ndi makonzedwe a nkhani ino. Zimenezi zimalola Mabungwe kukhazikitsa malamulo amene amaletsa, kukonza, kapena kuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito ufulu woikidwa, ngakhale ngati malamulowo safika pa khalidwe lopanda ufulu.

Mphamvu Yokakamiza ndi Malo Okhometsera

Mu Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966), Bwalo linachirikiza Chiletso cha Voting Rights pa kuletsa kuwerenga ndi kuŵerenga kwa ovota ku Puerto Rican ku New York, ngakhale kuti bwalo lamilandu lidali litanena kuti kuyesa kulemba kulemba kulemba ndi kuŵerenga sikunaswe malamulo a boma otetezera Claus. Komabe, zosankha zonga [Focternan] Zopereka mphamvu ya “kupatsa Boerne v. Florme [5] Malamulo ochepetsako a Bocrect [197], amaletsa ‘ kutetezera kofanana kwa malamulo a Country. Kuŵerenga kokuliraku kumapangitsa malamulo okonza malamulo kuwonjezera ufulu. Komabe, pambuyo pake, zigamu za Bocrective. [Foctive] [5]

Mmene Malamulo Oyendera Mafuko Amakhalira ndi Malamulo Ogwirizana

Malamulo ambiri a ufulu wachibadwidwe a boma amadalira pa Chiphunzitso cha Kusonkhanitsidwa. Chikalata cha ufulu wachibadwidwe cha 1964 , mwachitsanzo, kugwiritsira ntchito mphamvu za Congress ya zamalonda ndi mphamvu ya 144th Amendment kuletsa tsankho m'malo ogona a anthu onse, ntchito, ndi maprogramu oyendetsedwa ndi boma. Koma popanda kugawa, maboma akanatha kulola tsankho la fuko popanda chilango. Kugaŵana kwa Chitetezo cha Ufulu (kupwirikitikizidwa ndi 145) kumapereka maziko a boma lotopeputsa ufulu. Mofananamo, [FLT: 2] ndi malamulo a boma owonjezera ogwirizana ndi malamulo a boma. [FLT:] [FOct:3] ndi ufulu wa kukwaniritsa malamulo a boma la boma la boma lowonjezera.

Malamulo a Maboma Ochirikiza Ufulu Wawo

Mlanduwo wa 1964

Zikalata zachiŵiri za Chikalata cha Chilamulo cha ufulu wachibadwidwe zoletsa tsankho lozikidwa pa fuko, mtundu, chipembedzo, kapena dziko m'malo a anthu onse okhala (malesitilanti, mabwalo a maseŵero). Zida VII zimaletsa tsankho la ntchito pamaziko amodzimodzi, kuphatikizapo kugonana. Chikalatacho chinachirikizidwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba mu [Atlanta Motel v. United States [FL:1] [1964] ndi [[FL:2] Katzenbach v. McCling [[FT3:64] mu mphamvu ya Couragement , koma kuperekedwa kwake kunasonkhezeredwanso ndi lonjezo la 1450 la chitetezo ndi chitetezero chofanana ndi chitetezero chofanana cha lamulo. Chikalata cha malamulo ogwirizana ndi malamulo a Chilamulo cha Uchilamulo cha Uct. Chikalata chogwirizana ndi Chikalata cha Chikalata cha Chikalata cha Malamulo cha Malamulo cha Malamulo owonjezera kuwonjezera mfundo za ufulu, chokhudzana cha kuwonjezera cha kuwonjezera cha kulongosola kwa Bill.

Kuvomereza Chiletso cha Ufulu wa Anthu mu 1965

Voting Rights Act (VRA) mwinamwake ndi lamulo lamphamvu la boma logwirizana ndi ufulu woikidwa ndi lamulo. Gawo 2 la VRA limaletsa mchitidwe uliwonse wosankha umene umatulukapo kusankhana pamaziko a fuko kapena mtundu, kapena kukhala m'gulu la chinenero cha anthu ochepa. Chikalatachi makamaka chida cha machitachita amene analamulira kuti asunthe Aamereka a Afirika, monga kuyesa kulemba ndi kuwerenga, kufunsira misonkho, ndi zofunikira zotopetsa zolembedwa. VRA inaikidwa pansi pa Demetrieth Reconsoletion (zimene zimaletsa tsankho la fuko povota) ndi Chigawo 5 cha Demendment (Lamphonso la 14. Ziphunziro za kutsimikizira kuti oyenera kuvota. [Imodzi], koma chiwonjezerocho chikhoza kuwonjezera chivomerezo cha Boma la Boma la United Statese. [2]

Anthu a ku America Odwala Matenda Ofooketsa (ADA) a mu 1990

ADA imaletsa tsankho pa anthu olumala pantchito, malo ogona, zoyendera, ndi njira zolankhulirana. Nkhani yachiwiri ya ADA imagwira ntchito za boma ndi boma lakwawo, maprogramu, ndi ntchito. Kudalira mphamvu ya kukhazikitsa malamulo kwa 144 Demendment inayesedwa [[FL:0] Board of Truddepo of Trustees of University of Alabama v. Garrett [FLT] [200] [2001], kumene khoti linakhulupirira kuti antchito sangathe kusungirira ndalama pansi pa Zigawo I za ADA chifukwa chakuti Nyumba za Ufumu sizinasonyezere kusoŵa chilema ndi mayiko ena. Komabe, mawu a II a kulowa m'khoti ndi mautumiki ena athandiza, makamaka kumene kuweruza apadera (kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwapamwamba) ku bwalo la ADA ndi kuyerekezera kuyenera kumangidwa kwa AD.

Mutu wa nkhani ya Malamulo a Maphunziro a 1972

Iwotit IX imaletsa tsankho lozikidwa pa kugonana pa programu iliyonse ya maphunziro kulandira chithandizo cha boma cha ndalama. Pamene kuli kwakuti maziko oyambirira a lamulo la tsankho la kusiyanitsa kugonana anazikidwa pa kutetezera kwa chisembwere kwa mlingo wa maboma kupyolera mwa Kusintha kwa 144, Bwalo Lapamwamba silinagwirizanitse mokwanira kupenda mapangano a kugonana kufikira United States v. Virginia Virginia [1996] [19696].) Ditut IX imapereka njira ya malamulo imene kaŵirikaŵiri imapatsa mayeso oposa zimene malamulo a boma afuna [1] Kufuna kuti masukulu ayankhidwe ndi kuvutidwa ndi kuukira. Indix ikufuna kuti mapangano ameneŵa avomerezedwe pansi pa malamulo oletsa kugonana, pamene kuli kwakuti boma lingakhomerere kusiyanitsa kugonana, The The The ST proctive zison.

Kumaliza

Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Doctrine chidakalipo, chikumagwirizanitsa malire oyambirira a boma ndi malamulo amakono otetezera maulamuliro onse. Mwa kugwiritsa ntchito modzisankhira, Khoti Lalikulu lagwiritsira ntchito mbali zambiri, koma si onse (Brill of Rights ku boma ndi maboma akomwe, kudalira pa njira zoyenerera ndi chitetezo chofanana cha boma. Malamulo a Federal amagwirizana ndi malo a lamulo ameneŵa m’njira zingapo: lingafotokoze bwino za ufulu woikidwa ndi ufulu woikidwa, kuyambitsa mayeso opitirira zigamu za boma, ndi kuvomereza kachitidwe kalamulo koletsa kuswa malamulo. Malamulo oteteza ufulu wa boma monga Voganing Act, ADA, ndi IIX iliyonse imadalira pa maziko oikidwa ndi malo atsopano.

Kuyang'ana kutsogolo, chiphunzitsocho chingayang'anizane ndi mavuto atsopano. Kuphatikizapo kwa Second Amendment kukukonzedwabe, makamaka ponena za makonzedwe oletsa kugamula mlandu ( New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen, 2022]. Makonzedwe opanda lamulo a [1] khomo la ajuli, kuzenga mlandu wa boma, ndi kutsekedwa kwa kasanu ndi kamodzi kwa kamodzi ngati Khoti lipeza kuti n’lo lofunika kwambiri ku chiweruzo chamakono cha ku America. Panthaŵiyi, mikangano ikupitirizabe pa ukulu wa Chigawo 5 cha Nyumba za Ufumu ndi digiriki imene malamulo angapereke malamulowo popanda kuyendetsa malamulo a boma. Motero, kumvetsetsa malamulo a khoti la malamulo si nkhani ya mbiri ya zalamulo koma kulongosola za mbiri ya mbiri yakale ya mbiri ya anthu.