Maziko a Kupita Patsogolo Koyenera m’Chilamulo cha ku America

Lingaliro la kulinganiza koyenera limagwira ntchito monga maziko a malamulo a ku America, kutsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene amamanidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu popanda kuweruza koyenera. Pamene kuli kwakuti mawuwo akuwonekera ponse paŵiri m'Madesimende a Nachisanu ndi 14, tanthauzo lake lasinthidwa kwambiri ndi kumasulira kwa Khoti Lapamwamba kwa zaka zoposa mazana aŵiri. Kusinthika kwa njira yoyenerera kumasonyeza kusagwirizana kopitirizabe pakati pa ulamuliro wa boma ndi zoyenera za munthu aliyense payekha, ndi milandu yosintha zinthu imene imasintha malamulo oyenerera kuwongolera malire a chilungamo.

Chiphunzitsochi chimakhudza zinthu zambiri. Chimaphatikizapo zinthu zonse ziwiri zoteteza procedwari, kumva, khoti lopanda tsankho . ndi zitsimikizo zoteteza ufulu wina wofunika kwambiri kwa boma. Khoti Lalikulu lakhala likutsimikiza kuti njira yoyenerera ndi yosinthika, kusintha miyezo ya chikhalidwe ndi mmene zinthu zilili pamtengo. Kumvetsa mmene mfundo za makhalidwe abwino zimenezi zagwiritsidwira ntchito kumafuna kupenda milandu imene inakakamiza Khotilo kufotokoza zimene likufuna kuti lichite pofotokoza mfundo zake.

Maziko a Mbiri Yakale: Kuchokera ku Magna Carta Kufikira ku Malamulo

Mawu akuti "kuyambira kwa kachitidwe ka lamulo" anawonekera choyamba mu Magna Carta ya 1215, yomwe inalengeza kuti "padzakhala munthu womasuka adzagwidwa kapena kuikidwa m’ndende... kusiyapo chiweruzo chololedwa cha anthu ake kapena lamulo la dziko. Pazaka mazana ambiri, lamulo la Angelezi wamba linasintha lingaliro limeneli kukhala chitsimikizo cha dongosolo lolungama. Olamulira a ku America anatengera mwambo umenewu ndi kuuika m'Malamulo a Bill of Rights. Comft Amendment (1791) analetsa boma la boma la bomalo kulanda munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma "opanda njira yoyenerera ya nkhondo yachiŵeniŵeni, Lachiŵeniwe, LamPrementi (1868) kuwonjezera lamulo limeneli, kupanga malo a dziko kaamba ka ufulu wa anthu.

Kwa zaka zambiri za zana la 19, Khoti Lalikulu linamasulira njira yoyenera, kusumika maganizo pa kukhazikika kwa pulogalamu. Nthaŵi ya Lochner (05 - 1937) inakhala ndi khoti logwiritsa ntchito njira yoyenerera kuswa malamulo a zachuma, koma njira imeneyo inakanidwa pambuyo pake. Kumvetsa kwamakono kwa njira yoyenerera yochitira zinthu kunachokera ku ufulu wa anthu wa Warren Court ndi kusintha kwa njira zaupandu, zimene zinapangitsa milandu yambiri imene tsopano ikulongosola za malamulo athu.

Mmene Zinthu Zimakhalira: Ufulu Womveka

Goldberg v. Kelly (1970)

Pamene kuli kwakuti sanafotokozedwe m'nkhani yoyamba, Goldberg v. Kelly ndi wofunika kwambiri kuti amvetsetse ntchito yamakono yofuna kutetezedwa. Khoti linagamula kuti boma lisanachotse mapindu a wolandira, liyenera kupereka kumvetsera koonekeratu. Chigamulo chimenechi chikakhazikitsa kuti pamafunika mpata waukulu kuti munthu amvedwe pamene boma likubera munthu wina wotetezedwa, ngakhale pamene chiwongola dzanjalo chili chovomerezeka mmalo mwa chuma chamwambo. Mlandu woyambitsa kuyesa koyenera kuyang'anira: Makhoti amayesa chikondweretso chaumwini, kuopsa kwa kusoŵa zinthu zofunikira pa ntchito za boma, ndi kusamala za boma pa kusamala zaumiriridwa kwa anthu osoŵa m’manja.

Malamulo atatu ameneŵa, olinganizidwa pambuyo pake mu Mathews v. Eldiridge (1976 [1], akhala muyezo wodziŵira kuti ndi dongosolo liti la malamulo. Mathews [1] Khoti linagwiritsa ntchito mayeso a kupunduka kwa Social Security ndikumaliza kuti kumva kwa nthaŵi yapambuyo poti ibwerera kumakhala kokwanira. Chosankhacho chinafotokoza kuti njira yofunikira si yopendera yolimba koma yofufuzira yosa yolondola njira yoikidwiratu.

M’Gault (1967)

Pasadakhale Gault [FLT , milandu ya ana inali yamwaŵi ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri inakanidwa zitetezero zachikhalidwe. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha njira imeneyo, likugamula kuti ana onenezedwa kupulupudza ali ndi ufulu wofunikira kuphatikizapo kudziŵitsidwa milandu, kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu, mwaŵi wakulimbana ndi kudzitsutsa wekha, ndi mwaŵi wa kukangana ndi kudutsa mtanda wa apandu. Mlanduwo unawonjezera chitetezero cha ku anthu ochitidwapo kalelo monga ziwiri za boma, kuzindikira kuti zotulukapo za kulakwa kwa achichepere zingakhale zowopsa monga chilango chauchifwamba chauchikulu.

Choloŵa cha [[FLT: 0] Gault [FLT :1] n’chowonekera m'dongosolo lachinyamata la boma lililonse. Imasonyezanso mmene njira yoyenerera imasinthira kuphatikiza magulu akale otsika. Khoti linalingalira kuti "Si kuti kukonzanso kwa 14 kapena Bill of Rights kuli kwa achikulire okha," lamulo limene limapitirizabe kuumba nkhani zokhudza ana, akaidi, ndi anthu ena ovutika.

Kudziloŵetsa m’Chiwawa ndi Kuyenera kwa Uphungu

Gideon ndi Wainwright (1963)

Nkhani yoyamba inasonyeza molondola Gideon monga chosinthira. Mlanduwo unabuka pamene Clarence Earl Gideon, mkaidi wa Florida, anachonderera Bwalo Lapamwamba pambuyo pokana loimira loya chifukwa chakuti satha kugula imodzi. Khotilo linagwirizana kuti ufulu wa Kusintha kwa Chipangano ndi ufulu wofunika kwambiri wogwira ntchito ku maboma kudzera ku Programmeters [Mgwirizano wa 147] Claus Clause . Woweruza Hugo Black’ssss anagogomezera kuti "m dongosolo lathu la upandu, munthu aliyense wopitira kukhoti, amene ali wosayenerera kulipira loya kwa loya kwa loya kwa loya kwa lamulo, sangatsimikizidwe mlandu wabwino ngati sanaperekedwe uphungu kwa iye.

Gideon . anagwetsa chigamulo cha khoti loyamba mu Brady (1942]), chimene chinalola maboma kusankha ngati angapereke uphungu pa mlandu mwakuti ukhalepo. Chigamulocho chinatsogolera ku kulengedwa kwa madongosolo a anthu onse m'dziko lonse ndi kukhazikitsa ufulu wa woimba mlandu pa zigawo zonse zowopsya. Nkhani zotsatira zawongolera kuyenera kuphatikizapo kuchonderera, kuweruza, ndi kuchonderera koyamba, ngakhale kuti kachitidwe kachitidwe ka machitidwe ka machitidwe kamakono katsopano.

Miranda ndi Arizona (1966)

Nkhani zochepa nzachikhalidwe monga Malamulo odziŵika, kuti chilichonse chimene chinganenedwe kuti chikhale chete, kuti chigwiritsiridwe ntchito polimbana ndi munthu, ndi kuti kufunsa kwabwino ngati mulibe udindo wodzitetezera kumafuna kuti mudzitetezere. Machenjezo odziŵika bwino ndi akuti, kuyenera kukhala chete, kuti chilichonse chimene chinganenedwe chikhoza kugwiritsidwa ntchito polimbana ndi inu, kuyenera kwa loya, ndi makonzedwe a uphungu ngati simungathe kuteteza munthu wina mwadala kukana kuchotsa ufulu wake mosadziwa. Woweruza Wamkulu Earl Warren analemba kuti "atsutsirane sangagwiritsire ntchito mawu, kaya ngati akufunsira kapena kufunsa, kusiya kufunsa kwa woyang’anira, kusiyapo kugwiritsa ntchito bwino ufulu wa kuteteza ufuluwo podziteteza.

[[FLT: 0] Marnda kuchenjeza kwakhala mbali ya nthaŵi zonse ya njira za polisi, ngakhale kuti Khoti lalemba zosakhala monga kusungidwa kwa anthu ( New York v. Quarles, 1984]) ndi kulola kufunsa kochepetsedwa popanda machenjezo a kutsekereza kwa nthaŵi zonse. Ngakhale kuti kutsutsa malamulo ndi oweruza ena, [[FLT: 4.] Maranda [1] amakhalabe mzati wofunikira wa kachitidwe mchitidwe kaumboni m'chiweruzo, akutsimikizira kuti mtolo uli pa boma kutsimikizira kuti kuvomerezako kulidi kwaufulu.

Nkhani Zowonjezereka za Apandu Zosankhidwa

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
  • Terry v. Ohio (1968) . . — Ilorected "imani ndi frisk" kufufuza kozikidwa pa kukayikira koyenera, kulinganiza zoyenera za Gemendment ndi chitetezo cha ofisa.
  • Batson v. Kentucky (1986) . — Ozengezera mlandu anagwiritsira ntchito zopinga kuchotsa oweruza ozikidwa pa fuko, kuchirikiza chitetezo chofanana ndi zoyenera zoyesa.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri: Kuteteza Maufulu Aakulu

Kuyenda m’mahema

Nkhani yoyamba imaphatikizapo Roe v. Wade koma sumafotokoza tanthauzo lake la chiphunzitso. Khotilo linavomereza kuyenera kwa lamulo kwa chinsinsi kuphatikiza chigamulo cha mkazi cha kuchotsa mimba. Kuyenera kumeneko kunakhazikitsidwa mu Century Process Clause ya Kusintha kwa Zaka 144, kumene Khoti linakhala nalo kutetezera "malamulo" ufulu umene uli "kutsatira mfundo ya ufulu wolamulidwa". Chigamulo cha Jasi Harry Blackmun chinafufuza kuyenera kwa kukhala kwachinsinsi kudzera m'nkhani zophatikizapo za ukwati, kubereka, ndi kuletsa kubereka, kugamula kuti chikondwerero cha boma chimakhala choyenerera m’moyowokha pambuyo poti.

[[FLT:] [[FLT:] [[FLT:]] Ili imodzi ya njira zopikisana kwambiri zofunikira. Iko kunasinthidwa ndi Parents Parents v. Casey, imene inaloŵa m’malo ndi "mtolo wachidule" muyezo, ndipo potsirizira pake inalamuliridwa ndi [[FLT:]. Jackson] Magulu a Zaumoyo [Akazi:] 2022], amene anakhulupirira kuti malamulo a malamulo sakhazikitsa kuyenera kwa kuchotsa mimba ndi kubwezera nkhani. Kutsutsana kwapaderako [[FLD:] [FLT] [FLT] [5]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Nkhani yoyamba imanena molondola kuti [[FLT: 0] Oberge adalephera kulembetsa ukwati wa kugonana kofanana m'dziko lonselo. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kwa kukwatira kuli kuyenera kwapadera pansi pa Curvect ndi Uniment Classias. Jasitine Kennedy anagogomezera kuti ukwati ndi chinthu chofunika kwambiri cha dongosolo la mayanjano, chofunika pa ulemu ndi ufulu wa munthu aliyense. Chigamulocho chinadalira pa njira yolinga imodzimodziyo yolinga yolinga yogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi V. Virginia Virginia [FLT:] (197]), yomwe inaletsa ukwati wa pakati pa anthu ambiri, ndi [FLT:] LLnce. v. .[FFF.5] [5]

Chiyambukiro cha .Obergefe . chimaposa kulingana kwa ukwati. Ilo limatsimikizira kuti Procession Claus imatetezera "zosankha zaumwini za ulemu ndi kudziimira," chisinthiko chimene chagwiritsiridwa ntchito m'nkhani zokhudza zoyenera za makolo, kupanga zosankha za zamankhwala, ndi kusunga thupi. Chigamulocho chimasonyezanso kugwirizana pakati pa njira yoyenerera ndi yolingana ndi chitetezo: pamene Khoti linapenda matanthauzo onse aŵiri, njira yoyenerera yosungira maziko a maziko operekera kuvomereza kuyenera kwa kuyenera.

Maziko Ena Ofunika

  • Lovang v. Virginia (1967) .[FL:1] — Kuletsa ziletso zaufuko pa ukwati kukhala zoswa njira yoyenerera ndi chitetezo cholingana.
  • Lawrence v. Texas (2003) [1] — Kutembenukira ku lamulo la sodoma la Texas, kuzindikira kuti achikulire ali ndi njira yoyenerera ya kudziloŵetsa m'makhalidwe aumwini a kugonana.
  • Shashington v. Glucksberg (1997) . . . . adakana njira yoyenerera yothandizira kudzipha, akumachepetsa kuwonjezereka kwa njira yofunikira ku ufulu "wozikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ndi mwambo wa mtunduwu.

Kumene Malo Oyenera Kuwatsatira Amafika Posafika

Si nkhani zonse zimene zimayendera bwino lomwe m'gulu la opanga kapena ang'onoang'ono. Mathews v. Eldidge .: ikupanga mayeso olinganiza, koma zikondwerero zimene zimatetezera . imateteza /_mapindu. [[FLT:] [FLT]] [Hamdi v. Rumfeld [2004] imakhudza U.S. Amakhala osungidwa monga mdani. Khoti lomwe linafuna kuti woyendetsayo alandire chidziŵitso cha mfundo zenizeni za kulinganiza kwake ndi mwaŵi wa kupikisana kwake. Mchitidwe wa nkhondoyo uyeneranso kuchitika m’nthaŵi zina za nkhondo isanathe.

Mpando wina wa pampatuko umabuka mu [FL:0] Boumediene v. Bush (2008) , kumene khoti linanena kuti akaidi ku Guantanamo Bay anali ndi mwaŵi walamulo wa habeas corpus .a woyenerera kutetezera [1] Ngakhale kuti anasungidwa kunja kwa dziko la United States. Chigamulocho chinalimbikitsa kuti njira yoyenerera siingokhala ya dziko lokha; chimamamatira pamene boma likhala ndi ulamuliro wokwanira pa munthu.

Mfundo Yothandiza: Mavuto Obwera M’tsogolo

Kutsatira njira yotsatira kusinthika poyankha ku luso latsopano ndi kusintha kwa chikhalidwe. Khoti Lalikulu lalimbana ndi mmene kuteteza kwamakono kumagwirira ntchito m'nyengo ya manambala. Mwachitsanzo, Riley v. California (ku California]] adanena kuti apolisi amafunikira chilolezo kuti afufuze za m'mafoni a m'manja amene agwidwa kuti agwire, chifukwa chakuti mafoni amakono ali ndi chidziŵitso cha munthu aliyense. Woweruza Wamkulu Roberts analemba kuti " chenicheni chakuti luso la zopanga zinthu tsopano limapangitsa munthu kunyamula chidziŵitso chosayenerera chitetezero cha oyambitsa nkhondo. Zimenezi zikugwirizana ndi malamulo akugwirizana ndi mfundo zapamwamba, koma molingalira mwanzeru: mfundo zake, ndi kulolera, ndi kunyalanyaza mfundo za boma.

Mofananamo, nkhaŵa zofunikira zabuka mogwirizana ndi mabungwe a boma, malamulo a makompyuta a anthu, ndi nzeru zopeka zogwiritsiridwa ntchito poweruza. Makhoti amapemphedwa mowonjezereka kugamulapo kuti ndi njira yotani imene iri yofunikira pamene ma algorith apanga zosankha zoyambukira ufulu wa munthu, ngongole, kapena ntchito. Pamene kuli kwakuti kuli kwakuti palibe mlandu wa Bwalo Lapamwamba umene walongosola mwachindunji njira zoyenerera m'malamulo a boma la AI - directiva, makhoti aang'ono ayamba kulimbana ndi nkhani za kuonekera bwino kwa kuonekera, kukondera, ndi kuyenera kwa kutsutsa zotuluka za ndandanda ya malamulo.

Mliri wa CovoId umayesedwanso ku malire oyenera. Katemera amalamula, ndi ziletso zamwadzidzidzi pa misonkhano ya anthu zonse zoyambitsa milandu yakuti proceductal ndi substantin imaswedwa. Khoti kaŵirikaŵiri limalolera kuyang'anira maulamuliro a zaumoyo koma nthaŵi zina amapeza kuti njira zenizeni zinafika kutali, monga mu Chikatolika Diocese cha Brooklyn v. Cuomo . [[FLT:]] 20, zimene zinagwetsa malire pa mautumiki wachipembedzo. Nkhani zimenezi zimasonyeza kuti njira yoyenerera si njira ya kalelo koma ya moyo imene iyenera kutsatiridwa.

Chiyambukiro pa Maphunziro a Malamulo ndi Uchigaŵenga

Chizindikiro choyenera cha zochitika za panthambi ndicho mfundo zazikulu za sukulu za lamulo. Iwo amaphunzitsa ophunzira osati kokha malamulo otsimikizirika komanso njira yomasulira malamulo: mmene angalinganizire zikondwerero zazikulu, kumasulira zoyenera, ndi kusiyanitsa pakati pa mawu osiyanasiyana a procedtura. Nkhanizo zimaperekanso zida kwa ochirikiza. Mathews [1] Kuyesa koyenera kwa boma kumapindulitsa nthaŵi zonse, kuletsa sukulu, ndipo ngakhale ma paroleva. Njira yoyenerera yapaderayo yakhala ikuperekedwa ndi ochirikiza ufulu wobala, ukwati wolingana, ndi ufulu wauchimuna.

Kunja kwa khoti, zigamulo zimenezi zasonkhezera masinthidwe a malamulo. Mwachitsanzo, maboma anasintha madongosolo awo achiweruzo a achichepere pambuyo pa GAUlt , kukonzanso mayeso a apolisi pambuyo pa Manda, ndi kufutukula maprogramu a kutetezera anthu a pambuyo pa Gideon[[. Milanduyo inasonkhezeranso machitidwe a kufunsa kwa ufulu wa anthu apadziko lonse, ndi maiko ambiri akulandira chitetezo chofananacho kaamba ka oimba mlandu ndi magulu otsutsa.

Kumaliza: Kusintha kwa Zinthu

Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti chilungamo sichingachepetsedwe ku njira yokhazikitsira. Nkhani ngati [[FLT: 0] [FLT], Gwideon [[FLT], , [FLT] [[FLT:] , ndi [FFL:] .

Pamene chitaganya chikupitirizabe kusintha , miyambo yosinthasintha, ndi mavuto osayembekezereka, zidzakhalabe mbali ya kupikisana kwamphamvu. Kufunitsitsa kwa Khoti Lalikulu kubwereranso kumbuyo, monga momwe kwawonedwa mu [[FLT: 0]] MaDobs [, amagogomezera kuti ngakhale malamulo otchuka kwambiri angatsutsidwe. Komabe, munthu aliyense, ngakhale mikhalidwe yake, ali ndi ufulu wochitira zinthu mwachilungamo pansi pa lamulo. Kumvetsetsa milandu imene yaumba mfundo imeneyi n’kofunika osati kokha kwa akatswiri a zamalamulo komanso kwa nzika iliyonse imene ikufuna kuteteza ufulu wotchulidwa m’malamulo.

Chuma Chowonjezereka