Mmene Zinthu Zinayambira

Lingaliro la kachitidwe koyenera silinatuluke mokwanira mu United States Constitution; linasintha kwa zaka mazana ambiri za nkhondo ya lamulo ndi ya ndale zadziko. Mawu ake oyambirira odziŵika akuwonekera mu [[FLT: 0] Magna Carta [1215] (1215]), kumene Mfumu John anavomereza kuti palibe munthu womasuka amene angaikidwe m’ndende kapena kulandidwa katundu wake “kusiyapo ndi chiweruzo chololedwa cha ausinkhu wake kapena ndi lamulo la dziko. Mawuwa anaonetsa kukana mbewu imene mphamvu ya boma iyenera kumangidwa ndi malamulo alamulo. Mpambuyo pake, malamulo a Chingelezi anakula monga kuyenera kwa oweruza milandu, kuyenera kwa umboni wamakono, ndi kutetezera kwa okhoza kuperekedwa kwa ophunzirawo. Koma kuwona kuti olamulira a ku America anapandukira ulamuliro wa Britain, iwo anatchulapo mfundo yaikulu ya lamulo la lamulo lamwambo loperekedwa kumbuyoku, ndipo kuwonjezera njira ya kutetezera kwa anthu ofufuza.

Kufotokoza Zomwe Ziyenera Kuchitika: Mapazi Aŵiri Osiyana

Chifukwa chake, nthaŵi zambiri amagaŵana m’magulu aŵiri, ndipo lililonse limagwira ntchito yosiyana yoteteza ufulu wa munthu.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Projectal common ifunsa mmene boma likuchitira pamene likulanda munthu wina moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Kufunikira njira zoyenerera: chidziŵitso chokwanira, mwaŵi wa kumvedwa pamaso pa wopanga zosankha wopanda tsankho, ndi chigamulo. Mwachitsanzo, boma lisanachotse ufulu wa makolo, liyenera kupereka kumvetsera kumene kholo lingapereke umboni ndi kutsutsa zinenezo za boma. Khoti Lalikulu la U.S lapanga mayeso oyenera Mathes v. Eldridge .[56] [2] Kutsimikizira zimene ziri zoyenerera: kupima chiwongo, kuyesa chiwongola cha boma paupandu cholakwika, kulephera kulakwa, ndi kuyendetsa zinthu zina zofunikira, kuphatikizapo kuyendetsa ntchito kwa boma, kutsimikizira kuti kuyenera kuwongolera. Koma sikuthandiza kuwongolera zinthu.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Chilungamo chapadera chimateteza ufulu wina waukulu ku kuloŵerera kwa boma mosasamala kanthu za njira zimene amagwiritsira ntchito. Imafunsa zimene boma lingachitire, osati kokha mmene limachitira. Mwachitsanzo, Khoti Lalikulu lakhala ndi ufulu wa kukwatira, kuyenera kwa kulera ana, ndi kuyenera kwa kukhazikitsa thupi n’kofunika kwambiri kwakuti palibe njira iliyonse imene ingalungamitse kuphwanya kwawo kodzisankhira. Kawirika, kugaŵana kapena kuyenera kwa ufulu. Malamulowo ndi oyenera kuti [FLT:] Ovomerezekapo. [2] Mayeso awiri ofunikira ndi ovomerezeka. [196] Njinga] New York (190.5], zimene zigwiritsidwa ntchito potsatira malamulo a zachuma, ndi kuweruza zapansi, monga: [Focrease]). [34]

Kupangidwa kwa Lamulo

Findrence Complete imati: “Palibe munthu amene adzamanidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. Chinenerochi chinagwiranso ntchito ku boma la boma. Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, Demendment ya 145 inapereka lamulo lomwelo ku maboma: “Boma lililonse silidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda njira ya lamulo. Chigamulo chachiŵiri cha Genetameterm , chimatsimikiziranso kuti“ chitetezo chokwanira cha malamulo, chimene kaŵirikaŵiri chimagwira ntchito yokhudza ntchito yotetezera tsankho. Kuposa zaka za zana la 20, Khoti la Supreme linagwiritsira ntchito njira yotchedwa [FLD: 0] kugwiritsa ntchito mbali yaikulu ya ufulu wa Bill [FLD], monga ngati kuyenera, ndi kutetezera kwa kuyenera kwa mboni, ndi kutetezera ufulu wokwanira kuyenera kwa kupambana kwa kuthawamba mlandu. Zikhoti . Zikhoti zina zogwirizana ndi kulongosola za lamulo za lamulo la Grole.

Kusintha kwa Kasanu kwa Nkhani

Pambali pa kulinganiza kwa lamulo la lamulo la boma, Demetriyo yachisanu ili ndi zitetezero zingapo zimene zimachirikiza chilungamo m'mabwalo. Agogo a Jury Clause amafuna chinenezo chachindunji ndi ajuli aakulu a milandu yaikulu ya boma, kupereka kuyang'anira munthu asanakakamizidwe kuimbidwa mlandu. [FLT:] Chomwechi [FLT:] chimalola munthu kukana kutsutsa mlandu wake, kuletsa boma kuweruza munthu wina kaŵiri kaŵiri pa mlanduwo, kutetezera oimbidwa mlanduwo ku kuvutidwa mobwerezabwereza.

Mgwirizano wa 14 wa Kusintha ndi Kusagwirizana

Pamene Demetrisement ya 144 inavomerezedwa mu 1868, cholinga chake chachikulu chinali kutetezera akapolo omasulidwa chatsopano ku malamulo a boma opalamula. Koma njira yake yoyenerera inakhala njira yogwiritsira ntchito ufulu walamulo ku maboma. Mwachitsanzo, mu Gideon v. Wainright (1963), [FLD] [A. [A.1] Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti Kuyenera kwa Sixth Amendment kulangiza ndi kofunika kwambiri kwakuti limagwira ntchito kukhazikitsa milandu kudzera m'mabungwe a 1449 Demendment. Mofananamo, kuyenera kwa mlandu wa mwamsanga, ndi kuyenera kwa mboni kuyang'anizana ndi onse. Khotilo linagalamulo lachitapo kutetezera, kapena kuletsa malamulo opondereza.

Zomwe Anachita: Bwalo lamilandulo

M’kuzenga mlandu, njira yoyenerera imatsimikizira kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo amachitiridwa monga wotengamo mbali mokwanira, osati monga chinthu wamba cha mphamvu ya boma.

Kuyenera kwa Uphungu

Mwinamwake njira yoyenerera yapadera kwambiri ndiyo chitsimikiziro cha loya. Gedeon v. Wainwright , Bwalo Lapamwamba linagamula kuti liyenera kupereka loya kwa chigamulo chilichonse cha apandu amene sangathe kulipira. Kuyenera kumeneku kumafikira ku zigawo zonse zowopsya za kuweruza, kuchokera ku ku kufunsira. Kukhalapo kwa uphungu kumathandizira kugwirizanitsa mpikisano pakati pa munthu ndi boma, kutsimikizira kuti mikangano yalamulo yaperekedwa moyenerera ndi kuti ufulu wa woimbidwa mlanduwo uli wotetezeredwa.

Kuyenera kwa M’bale Wopanda Tsankho

Bungwe la Sixth Amendment limatsimikizira “ajuli opanda tsankho,” ndipo njira yoyenerera imatsimikizira zimenezi. Pa nthawi yosankha ajuli, mbali zonse ziwiri zingatsutse anthu amene angasankhe kuti akhale okondera. Woweruza ayenera kuonetsetsa kuti gulu la ajuli lisonyeze kuti likhale loyera m’deralo ndiponso kuti palibe woweruza amene wasankhidwa ndi juli imene inalembedwa asanaimbidwe mlandu. Ngati ajuli ali ndi vuto, njira yoyenerera ikufuna kuti mlanduwo uyambe ndi gulu lina losiyana.

Kuyenera kwa Kulimbana ndi Mboni

Otetezera ali ndi kuyenera kwa kuyang'anizana ndi otsutsa awo ndi kutsukira mboni molimbana nawo. Kuyenera kumeneku, kozikidwa mu Claus'', kumaletsa umboni wachinsinsi ndi kupereka chidzichinjirizo mwaŵi wa kutchula kusagwirizana, kukondera, kapena mabodza . Khoti Lapamwamba lakhulupirira kuti ngakhale pamene mboni sizikupezeka, mawu awo sangagwiritsiridwe ntchito pokhapokha ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo anali ndi mpata woyamba wa kuwawonetsa.

Kuyenerera Kupereka Umboni ndi Kuutsimikizira

Pamene kuli kwakuti wozenga mlanduyo ayenera kutsimikizira kukhala ndi liwongo mosakaikira koyenera, kuchinjirizako kuyenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi watanthauzo wakutsutsa mlandu wa boma. Makhoti sangaletse mwadala umboni wodzitetezera kapena kuletsa woimbidwa mlanduyo kutenga kaimidwe.

Kuyenera kwa Kukopa

Ngati mlandu waswa njira yoyenerera, woimbidwa mlanduyo angapereke apilo ku khoti lapamwamba. Ngakhale kuti palibe ufulu wa lamulo wa kufunsira mlandu uliwonse, boma lililonse ndi boma la boma limapereka mlingo umodzi wa apilo yachindunji. Mkati mwa apilo, khoti lobwerezalo limapenda ngati pali zolakwa za m'malemba. Zonga ngati kuvomereza kosayenera kapena kusankhidwa kwa ajuli kokondera. Kuchonderera kwachipambano kungatulutse kuzengedwa mlandu kwatsopano kapena kusinthidwa kwa mlanduwo.

Milandu ya Khoti Lalikulu Yomwe Inasintha Zinthu Moyenerera

Zosankha zingapo zothetsa mlandu zasonyeza mmene ntchito ya m’makhoti a ku America imayendera.

Miranda ndi Arizona (1966)

Kufunsa kwa apolisi kwakhala malo okakamiza. Mairanda, Bwalo Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti chitetezo cha Fitemestry pa kudzipatula chimafunikira kusungidwa kwa lamulo kuti adziŵitse kukayikira kwawo ufulu asanaimbidwe mlandu. Nkhani imeneyi imasonyeza mmene “Machenjezo a Monda [1] Kuyenera kukhala chete, ukulu wa kumanja kwa loya kwa loya, ndi chenjezo limene linanenedwa kuti lingagwiritsiridwe ntchito pa inu tsopano. Popanda machenjezo ameneŵa, mawu alionse opezeka kaŵirikaŵiri amamveka bwino asanaimbidwe. Nkhani imeneyi imasonyeza mmene machitidwe oyenera apolisi asanatsegule khotilo.

Gideon ndi Wainwright (1963)

Clarence Earl Gideon anali munthu wosauka amene anali kuimbidwa mlandu wa kuswa maloboti m'chipinda cha Florida. Iye anapempha khotilo kuika loya; boma linakana chifukwa chakuti panthaŵi imeneyo ufulu wa kupereka uphungu unaperekedwa kokha ku milandu ya boma. Gideoni anadziimira yekha ndipo anaimbidwa mlandu. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha chigamulo chake, kugamula kuti ufulu wa 6 pa kulangiza ndi ufulu wofunika kwambiri ku mayiko kudzera pa Genearth Amendment. Mlamment (Indation) inamasulidwa ndi loimira boma, Gideoni anamasulidwa. Mlanduwu unachititsa kuti udindo wa zachuma ukhale wosagamula chilungamo.

Rochin . California (1952)

Akuluakulu osungitsa malamulo analoŵa m'nyumba ya Rochin, kumuona atameza mapikipi aŵiri, ndiyeno kumtengera kuchipatala kumene mimba yake inapopera pokana kufuna kwake. Mabotolo anasintha kukhala a morphine. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti kachitidwe kameneka “kanaipitsa chikumbumtima” ndi kuswa njira zoyenerera, ngakhale kuti palibe Bill of Rights Regacy anaswedwa mwachindunji. Mlanduwo unakhazikitsa kuti njira zoyenerera zopimira boma ziletseke njira zankhanza kapena zolakwika ku chilungamo chachikulu.

Goldberg v. Kelly (1970)

Boma la New York lisanachotse mapindu a wolandira chithandizo, linafunikira kupereka mlandu woonekera. Khotilo linagamula kuti mapindu aumoyo ndiwo mtundu wa katundu pansi pa CID Process Claus, ndipo olandira ali ndi ufulu wa kumvetsera kwa kanthaŵi koyambirira kumene kumaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kupereka umboni, mboni, ndi kukhala ndi kumvetsera pamaso pa wopanga zosankha wopanda tsankho. Goldberg

Mathews v. Eldridge (1976)

Kupeza njira zofunikira boma lisanachotse phindu, Khoti Lalikulu linalengeza mayeso atatu olinganiza: chikondwerero chaumwini choyambukiridwa, upandu wa kumanidwa kolakwika, ndi chikondwerero cha boma. Mathews [1] tsopano ndi muyezo wa njira zofunikira za maulamuliro ndi a m'dziko, kuchokera ku mapindu a kupunduka kwa akatswiri a za kulera.

Mavuto Amakono Olimbana ndi Zochitika Zomwe Zikuchitika

Pamene kuli kwakuti malamulo amakhalidwe abwino adakali amphamvu, zopangidwa zamakono zimayesa kukwaniritsa ntchito yoyenerera. Vuto limodzi lalikulu ndilo kukwera kwa kutsutsana kwa . Otsutsa pafupifupi 95 peresenti ya milandu ya upandu amathera m'kuchonderera, osati kuzenga mlandu. Otetezera ayenera kudziŵa ndi kuchepetsa dala ufulu wawo wofunikira ku mayeso a aupoti, kuyenera kwa kutsutsana ndi mboni, ndi kuyenera kwa kukhala chete. Otsutsa amanena kuti chitsenderezo chachikulu cha kulandira chifunsinsinsi (kaŵiri ndi chiganizo chachidule kuposa chiganizo) angakakamize ngakhale anthu osalakwa kutsutsa mlandu. Makhoti ayesa kutsimikizira kuti kupemphako kodzifunira mwaufulu mwa kufuna kufunsa moyenerera, koma kufunsa mafunso ochuluka ponena za kufunsa mafunso onse oimbidwa bwino.

Khoti Lalikulu lazindikiranso zoyenera za anthu osaphunzira, monga kuyenera kwa kuzindikira ndi kuweruza, koma mlingo wa chitetezo kaŵirikaŵiri umalephera ziyeso zaupandu. Amatha kuthamangitsidwa popanda chilolezo cha nthaŵi yaitali, ndipo m'nkhani zina sapatsidwa uphungu. Ochirikiza amatsutsa kuti pamene misonkho iphatikizapo kupatukana ndi banja ndi anthu, boma liyenera kupereka mlingo wokulirapo wa chitetezo cha anthu opangika.

Malamulo a chisungiko chadziko amayenderananso ndi njira yoyenerera. Pambuyo pa kuukira 9 / 11, boma linapanga makomiti ankhondo a asilikali a adani ku Guantámo Bay. Khoti Lapamwamba mu HAmdi v. Rumsteld (2004) limakhulupirira kuti ngakhale nzika ya U.S. iyenera kulandira chidziŵitso cha maziko enieni a ndende yake ndi mwaŵi wakuyanjana ndi chigamulocho pamaso pa wopanga chigamulo chausilikali. Mlawu umasonyeza kuti njira zoyenerera zimasintha ngakhale panthaŵi ya tsoka, ngakhale kuti njira zenizenizo zidakalipo zopikisana.

Luso la zopangapanga limayambitsa mafunso atsopano. Kugwiritsa ntchito Umboni wa DNA , [[FT:2] Facial kudziŵidwa , ndi kuŵerengera maauth system popereka chigamulo chosonyeza kuonekera bwino ndi kuyenera kutsutsa kudalirika kwa umboni. Ngati wopachikidwayo sangathe kudutsa ndandanda ya pulogalamu kapena kumvetsa mmene imagwirira ntchito, makhoti akuyambira kufotokoza nkhani zimenezi, zikufunikira kutulukira mmene ziŵiya za ndandanda za ndandanda ndi kulola oimba mlandu kuti apereke umboni wodalirika.

Kuphunzitsa M’kalasi

Kwa aphunzitsi, njira yoyenerera imapereka nkhani yaikulu yogwirizanitsa malamulo, mbiri, ndi zochitika zamakono. Aphunzitsi angagwiritsire ntchito nkhani zachizindikiro zomwe zili pamwambazi monga mayeso, kuyerekezera ophunzira kutsutsana pamaso pa Bwalo Lapamwamba kapena kuyesa mbali zosiyanasiyana za mlandu. Kukambitsirana kusiyana pakati pa njira yoperekera malamulo ndi yoyenerera kumathandiza ophunzira kuzindikira ponse paŵiri kulungamitsa ndi makhalidwe akuya. Zochita zingaphatikizepo:

  • Kuzenga mlandu kwa magetsi: Ophunzira amachita mbali za kuweruza, loya, loya wotetezera, ndi oweruza olingalira kuti akuswa njira yoyenerera.
  • Kafukufuku wa [1] Magulu ofufuza nkhani imodzi yochititsa chidwi ndi kufotokoza mfundo zake, kugwira, ndi kukambirana ndi kalasi.
  • [[FLT: 0] .[FLT :1] Zitetezero zoyenera kugwira ntchito kwa osamukira kudziko? Bwanji ponena za sukulu kaamba ka chilango cha ophunzira? Mlandu wa Bwalo Lapamwamba Gos v. Lopez (1975] adakhulupirira kuti ophunzira oyang'anizana ndi kuchotsedwa ayenera kulandira chidziŵitso ndi mlandu, mfundo yabwino yotsegulira.
  • C zochitika zamakono: Nkhani za nyuzi zophatikizapo kuswa malamulo koyenera (m' lekuatiso, kumangidwa kwanthaŵi yaitali, kulakwa, kapena maprogramu ofufuza) ndi kukambirana ngati njira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito zikukwaniritsa malamulo alamulo.

Kugwiritsira ntchito magwero aakulu [1] monga mawu a Maprimendments yachisanu ndi 14th, malingaliro ambiri mu Mainda [1] ndi Gedeon , kapena ngakhale Magna Carta , amapanga ophunzira okhala ndi pangano lachindunji ndi chinenero chaufulu. Chuma chambiri chimapezeka kuchokera ku [[FLT: 4.] Cornell Information Active Institute ndi [FLT:] Project [FL:]

Kumaliza

Malamulo a m'nthawi yapakati a Magna Carta ndi mafomu amakono ofunsira kutsata, khoti loloŵera ku boma, ndi maumboni a manambala, mfundo imatsimikiza kuti boma silingachite zinthu popanda kugamula. M'khoti, njira yoyenerera imatsimikizira kuti woimbidwa aliyense amalandira khutu lolungama, wopanga zosankha wopanda tsankho, ndi mpata watanthauzo woti amvedwe. Pamene kuli kwakuti mavuto ndi zochitika zatsopano zikubuka, kudzipereka kwakukulu kukutsala: palibe munthu amene adzalandidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu popanda kutetezeredwa ndi lamulo. Mwa kuphunzitsa ndi kuzindikira mapulinsipulo ameneŵa, ophunzira ndi nzika zomwe zingathandizire kuti njira yoyenerera ikhalebe ya moyo kwa mibadwo ikudza.