Maupandu aŵiri ndiwo lamulo laupandu limene limatetezera anthu ku kuzengedwa mlandu umodzimodzi. Linazikidwa pa Lamulo la Kusintha Lachisanu la U.S., lamulo limeneli lotetezera kuti munthu asaikidwe "kulakwa kuikidwa kaŵiri m'maupandu kapena kuikidwa paupandu. Chiphunzitsochi chimagwira ntchito monga kufufuza kofufuza mofufuza kwa ozengedwa mlandu, kuletsa boma kugwiritsira ntchito chuma chake chachikulu kufooketsa woimbidwa mlandu, ndi kutsimikizira kumalizira kwa kulakwa kwake. Kuzindikira mmene kutetezera kumagwiritsidwira ntchito kaŵiri m'dera laupandu pochonderera kwa apandu . . . . .Ana, kaŵirikaŵiri amayang'ana ndi kuyang'ana pa zonse ziŵiri za makhoti oweruza omwe agwiritsira ntchito ndi opatula milandu amene akula m’malamulo akula m’milandu zaka makumi ambiri.

Ngakhale kuti mfundo yachikhalidwe imeneyi ikuoneka kuti ndi yopanda malire , osaimbidwanso mlandu ndi osaimbidwanso. Makhoti a apilo ayenera kuweruza mosamala kuti atsimikizire ngati mlanduwo udzaphwanya mawu oopsa a kawiri, makamaka pamene chigamulo chachotsedwa. Nkhaniyi ikufufuza mfundo ya kuopsa kwa zinthu ziwiri, kupenda mmene umachirikizidwa panthaŵi ya mayesero ndi kuchonderera, kufotokoza mfundo zazikulu monga chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro cha mbali ziŵiri, ndi kugogomezera kugwirizanitsa pakati pa kutha kwa mayeso ndi chilungamo. Pofika mapeto, oŵerenga akakhala ndi kumvetsetsa kolimba kwa malamulo kumene kumaletsa kuweruza kobwerezabwerezabwereza ndi mikhalidwe imene kukhozabe kukuchitika.

Lingaliro la Kuika Moyo Paupandu Kaŵiri: Magwero ndi Malamulo a Mkhalidwe

Maziko a ngozi aŵiri amayambira ku lamulo lakale lachigiriki ndi Roma, koma mtundu wake wamakono unafotokozedwa m'lamulo la Chingelezi. Oyambitsawo anaulingalira kukhala wofunika kwambiri kuti iwo auphatikiza m'Chisinthiko chachisanu, ndipo Khoti Lapamwamba linaphatikizapo chitetezo ku maboma kudzera ku Demendment ya 144th Amendment mu Benton v. Maryland [1969] [1]. Pamtima mwake, chiphunzitsocho chinateteza oimbidwa ndi maupandu atatu osiyana: mlandu wachiŵiri wa mlanduwo pambuyo pa kuchotsedwa, kuimbidwa kwachiŵiri pambuyo pa chikhululukiro, ndi chilango chambiri kaamba ka mlandu wofananawo.

Kutsimikizira ngati milandu iŵiri ili "kulakwa komweko," makhoti amagwiritsira ntchito mayeso a thanki , opangidwa mu , oikidwa mu [FLT] tamburger v. United States [1932]. Pansi pa kuyesa kumeneku, ngati lamulo lililonse lifuna umboni wa mbali imene inayo siitero, ndi ngozi ziŵiri sizimangirira milandu yotsatizana. Mwachitsanzo, kachitidwe kena ka kugulitsa mankhwala osokoneza kangawonongetseke mfundo zonse ziŵiri ndi lamulo, koma chifukwa chakuti mfumu iliyonse ili ndi mbali zake, chiphunzitso cha uchifumu chimaleka ziyeso. Mosiyana ndi, ngati milandu iŵiriyo ili yofanana, kulakwa koŵiri.

Mfundo yaikulu ndi yakuti pamene ngozi iikidwa . Pa mlandu wa oweruza, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene ajuli aikidwa ndi kulumbira. Pakuzengedwa kwa ben, imagwirizanitsidwa pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira. Patsogolo pake, boma lingatha kuchotsa milandu popanda kubisa pambuyo pake. Pambuyo pake, kuchotsako, kuchotsako kwa pa chophophonya chalamulo kwa woweruzayo, ndipo kutha kuchitidwa. Mofananamo, chitsimikizo chingakhale chomaliza kusiyapo ngati kuchonderera koimbidwa bwino ndi chigamulo chasintha chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa procracyrial (motsutsa umboni wosakwanira).

Kukakamizidwa Mkati mwa Ziyeso za Upandu

Zitetezero za ngozi ziŵiri zimasungidwa choyamba pamlingo wa mlandu. Maloya otetezera angadzutse zitsutso ngati boma liyesa kuikiza woimbidwa mlanduyo kachiŵiri kaamba ka khalidwe lofananalo. Ngati mlandu wa boma uli wofooka kwakuti palibe woweruza wolinga kuimbidwa mlandu, woimbidwa mlanduyo angapite ku mlandu [ woweruza mlandu wa kulakwa pansi pa malamulo a Federal Bridge Procedrecture 29. Ngati aloledwa pambuyo pobweza chigamulo cha mlandu wa liwongo, kuti wolakwayo sangaikidwenso. Mofananamo, ngati woweruzayo apeza kuti umboni wa mlanduwo uli wosakwanira mwalamulo mkati, chigamu cha woperekedwanso kulakwa koŵirikiza.

Chilamulo chooneka kwambiri chimachitika pamene oweruza abweza chigamulo chosalakwa. Woweruza sachita apilo chimenecho, mosasamala kanthu za mmene chigamulo cha oweruza chingawonekere. Mlandu umenewu umasonyeza lamulo lakuti woimbidwa mlandu sayenera kukakamizidwa kupirira mlandu wachiŵiri atapatsidwa mpata umodzi wokwanira wotetezera. Ngakhale ngati woweruzayo analangiza oweruza mosayenerera pa lamulo, wolakwayo angaime / boma lingaimbe mlandu, kuti apilukire ngati mlandu wa oweruzawo suyenera kutha. Komabe, ngati woweruzayo akana mlanduwo pabwalo lalamulolo (m. g., chifukwa cha lamulo lolakwika), boma lingalembe chikalatacho popanda kuphwanya lamulo, chifukwa chakuti siliyenera kuchititsa mlandu.

Kulakwa kwa Makhoti ndi Maupandu Aŵiri

Makhoti olakwa akupereka chitsutso chapadera. Ngati mlandu waperekedwa chifukwa cha "kulakwa kwakukulu" monga ngati juli yotchuka ('hang jaji") kapena chochitika chamwadzidzidzi . Woimbidwa mlanduyo angaikidwenso popanda kuphwanya kuopsa koŵirikiza. Khoti Lalikulu mu [FLT: 0] United States v. Perezi[[FL:1] [1824]) anakhazikitsa kuti woweruzayo ali ndi nzeru yolengeza mlandu molakwika pamene kuli "kufunikira," ndipo chivomerezo cha woimbidwayo sichifunikira kubwezera mlandu wovomerezeka. Komabe, ngati kulakwa kwa oweruza kapena khalidwe loipa kwachiweruzo kwa cholinga chofuna kuputa ndi kupeza komiti ina yabwino, kulakwa kwachiŵiri pansi pa mlandu wachiŵiri [Fognon:] [2]

Kukakamizidwa Mkati mwa Kupinga: Mmene Makhoti Opereka Chilango Amatetezera Kuwononga Magazi

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu wapezedwa ndi mlandu, angaimbidwe mlandu. Pamlingo wa kulakwa, nkhani za ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵirikaŵiri zimabuka m'malingaliro atatu: pamene boma lipempha kuchotsedwa mlandu, pamene woimbidwa mlandu achonderera chikhululukiro ndi kubwezera, ndipo pamene boma liyesa kubwezeranso pambuyo pa kusintha. Lamulo lalamulo nlakuti makhoti audindo alemekeze kutha kwa oulula ndipo sapenda mfundo zenizeni.

Boma Linapempha Kuti Adziimbe Mlandu

Demendment yachisanu imaletsa boma kuvomereza kulakwa. Imeneyi ndi lamulo lomveka. Komabe, boma lingapereke chilolezo cha kuchotsedwa pasadakhale chokhudzana ndi malamulo (m’ lekuatiso, kuweruza kumalephera kukhazikitsa mlandu) chifukwa chakuti palibe ngozi yomwe ikuikidwa. Boma likhoza kukopa chigamulo chimene chinali chofewa kwambiri, malinga ngati pempholo silikuphatikizapo lija la liwongo kapena kulakwa. Koma ngati jaji yaletsa, kapena ngati woweruzayo aweruza mlandu ataweruza mlandu wosalakwa chifukwa cha umboni wosakwanira, bomalowera kukopa.

Kukopana kwa Ochirikiza Maboma ndi Kupezanso Malo Oimbidwa Mlandu

Pamene woimbidwa mlandu avomereza mwachipambano chitsimikiziro, chiganizo cha ngozi ziŵiri sichimaletsa kubwezera mlandu. Kusiyanitsa kwakukulu kuli chifukwa cha kusinthidwa . Ngati khoti la audole likusintha chifukwa chakuti umboni wa kuweruza sunali wokwanira kuchirikiza chitsimikizo, kuti kubwezera ndi kofanana ndi kukhululukidwa kwa mlandu, ndi kuopsa koŵirikiza kwa makhoti. Mlandu ndi Bursks v. United States [17.]]), kumene Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti pamene chitsimikizo cha chikaikiro chakhala chopanda umboni wokwanira, boma silingabwezeretsedwenso mlanduwo. Zimenezi nchifukwa chakuti mlanduwo unalephera kutsimikizira liwolo lokwanira.

Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, ngati kubwezerako kwazikidwa pa kulakwa kwa mawu olembedwa . monga ngati kuvomereza kosayenera kwa umboni, malangizo a oweruza olakwika, kapena kulakwa kwa oweruza . Mlanduwo umabwezeredwanso kaamba ka mlandu watsopano. Mlandu woimbidwa mlandu "waimirira" kutetezeredwa kwa kaŵiri mwa kukopa, ndipo boma limaloledwa kuyesanso. Kulingalira ndiko kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo anasankha kutsutsa chikhululukiro, ndipo amalola boma kukhala ndi mpata wina wopereka mlandu wake moyenerera, malinga ngati kulakwako sikunaphatikizapo umboni wokwanira.

Kufufuza Pachikopa

Pamene mlandu uperekedwanso, makhoti ayenera kutsimikizirabe kuti mlandu watsopanowo uli wa mlandu wofanana ndi mlandu woyamba. Ngati boma liyesa kuwonjezera milandu yatsopano imene sinali mbali ya mlandu woyambirira koma ikumachokera ku malonda a Blockberger, mayeso a Blockberger amagwira ntchito. Mwachitsanzo, ngati mlandu woyamba unali wakupha munthu woyamba ndipo mlanduwo unasinthidwa chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa lamulo, boma silingaipwiritse mlandu wa kupha munthu wachiŵiri ngati zimenezo zili zophatikizapo kulakwa koyambirira, koma ngati woimbidwa mlanduyo sanavomereze. Komabe, boma lingavomereze mlandu womwewo kapena mlandu uliwonse wochepa womwe unaperekedwa poyamba.

Zosiyana ndi Milandu Yapadera

Ngakhale kuti mawu oika pangozi kaŵiriwo ali amphamvu, si otheratu. Kupatulapo kwina kodziŵika bwino kumalola kuzenga mlandu kotsatizana kapena chilango zimene mwina zikawoneka kukhala zikuswa lamulolo.

Chiphunzitso cha Uchifumu cha Umodzi

Mwinamwake chosiyana chachikulu kwambiri ndicho chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri. Chifukwa chakuti boma la boma ndi boma lililonse ndi lapadera, kachitidwe kofananako kangaikidwe mlandu ndi onse aŵiri popanda kuvulaza kuwirikiza kaŵiri. Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene amalanda banki yosungidwa mwalamulo angayesedwe ndi boma chifukwa cha kuba ndi boma la boma chifukwa cha kuba kwa kuba, zonse ziŵirizo zikuchokera ku khalidwe limodzimodzilo. Kusiyana kumeneku kwachirikizidwa mobwerezabwereza, kwakukulukulukulu mu . Haath v. Alabama [1] (1985), kumene Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikizira kuti milandu yotsana ndi maboma aŵiriwo sikunaswa chiwopsezo choŵirikiza chifukwa chakuti boma lililonse linali lopatula. Otsutsa zimenezi, koma lamulolo limathetsa.

Kuwalakwira ndi Chilango cha Anthu Ochita Upandu

Ngozi yapaŵiri imayendera pa zochitika zaupandu. Kupatula boma katundu wogwiritsidwa ntchito kapena wotengedwa ku upandu, kaŵirikaŵiri sikulingaliridwa kukhala chilango pa zifuno zoŵirikiza, ngakhale ngati kutayikiridwako kumagwirizanitsidwa ndi khalidwe laupandu. Komabe, ngati kutayikiridwa ndi boma kuli kulangidwa m’chilengedwe kwakuti kungapereke chilango chaupandu, lamulolo lingagwiritsire ntchito. Khoti Lapamwamba likhoza kugwiritsa ntchito. mu [Ursery v. Urty [1] (1996], posunga kuti kutayidwa kwa anthu sikuli "Chilango" chifukwa cha kuyang'aniridwa kwa ngozi ngati iwo akutumikira chifuno chothetsera. Komabe, zikhoterero zaposachedwapa zachuma zopimira lamulo zikupitirizabe kutsutsana.

Collateral Estopel (Kudzionetsera)

Chimodzi ndi ngozi ziŵiri ndicho chiphunzitso cha kuyang'anira estopel, chimene chimaletsa kupendedwa kwa nkhani za chowonadi zimene zagamulidwa kale m’chiyanjo cha woimbidwa mlandu. Mwachitsanzo, ngati ajuli amasula woimbidwa mlandu pa mlandu wakupha mwa kupeza kuti woimbidwa mlanduyo sanawombere mfuti yakupha, boma silingayese pambuyo pake kuimbidwa mlandu mmodzimodziyo ndi chida chakupha ngati mlanduwo umadalira pa nkhani yoona. Mfundo imeneyi, yotengedwa ku Aspe v. Swenson[FLT:] (1970]), imawonjezeranso chitetezo cha kaŵiri cha kulakwa kwa munthu aliyense payekha, osati kokha milandu yonse.

Kukonzanso Pambuyo pa Kukula kwa Makoswe

Chikalata cha boma cha habeas corpus chotokosa chitsimikiziro cha boma chingatulukepo kumasuka ngati chitsimikizirocho chinapezedwa motsutsana ndi Malamulo . Komabe, ngati khoti la Habeas lipeza chophophonya cha lamulo chimene chingachiritsidwe . Monga thandizo losaphula kanthu la uphungu umene umatsutsa kutetezera . Chikalata cha ngozi ziŵiri sichimatsekereza kusiyapo ngati umboni wa boma unali wosakwanira, monga momwe watsimikizidwira ndi bwalo la milandu la Habeas. Malowa ali ovuta ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri amagwirizana ndi malamulo oletsa kulakwa.

Makina Othandiza Opangira Mayeso Aŵiri pa Kukopa

Kodi ndimotani mmene woimbidwa mlandu amadzutsiradi chinenezo cha kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri pa apilo? Mwachibadwa, chimadzutsidwa m'nkhani yoyamba yalamulo. Khoti la appellate limapenda cholembedwa cha mlandu de novo kuswa kulikonse. Ngati khotilo lipeza kuti umboni wa woimba mlanduwo sunali wokwanira, udzachotsa chigamulocho ndi tsankhu, kutanthauza kuti bomalo silingatsutse. Ngati khotilo lipeza cholakwika cha m’nkhaniyo, lingasinthe ndi kubwezera mlandu watsopano, koma lidzalingaliranso kaya ngati kulakwako kunali kosavulaza.

Mofunika, zinenezo za ngozi ziŵiri zingapatsidwenso mwa njira yapasadakhale kuti achotse mlandu pamene boma liyambitsa mlandu wachiŵiri pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena chigamulo. Ngati khoti lozengedwa mlandulo likana kusudzulidwa, woimbidwa mlanduyo nthaŵi zina angatenge apilo pamaso pa chiweruzo chomaliza . Chifukwa chakuti kuyenera kwa kumasuka ku ngozi yoŵirikiza ndi "kuyenerera kusazengedwa" kumene kungatayike ngati akakamizidwa kupyola mlandu. Khoti Lapamwambalo linavomereza zimenezi mu [[FLT: 0]. Abney v. United States[FL:1] [7]] , kulola kuchonderera kwapalamula kwapasa ndi apo ndi apo.

Ndiponso, kuchuluka kwa mahabeas corpus kungagwiritsiridwe ntchito kutsutsa chitsimikizo cha boma chimene chinapezedwa pambuyo pa kuswa ngozi ziŵiri. Makhoti a boma angapereke chithandizo ngati khotilo mopanda nzeru lakugwiritsira ntchito lamulo lotsimikizirika la kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri. Zimenezi zimapereka chitseko cha chisungiko pamene makhoti a boma alephera kusungitsa chitetezocho moyenerera.

Kuyerekezera: Kuika Maupandu Paŵiri m’Madongosolo Ena a Malamulo

Pamene kuli kwakuti United States imapereka zitetezero zazikulu ndi zowopsa, maiko ena akuyandikira nkhaniyo mosiyana. Pansi pa lamulo la Chingelezi, lamulo loletsa ngozi ziŵiri linali lofanana kwa nthaŵi yaitali, koma pambuyo pa Criminal Justice Act 2003, UK inayambitsa kusiyana kwa zolakwa zazikulu (m.g., kugwirira chigololo, pamene umboni watsopano ndi wokakamiza ubuka. Zimenezi zimalola kukonzanso pambuyo pa mikhalidwe yochepa. Ku Canada, [FL: 0] Car of Rights and Frees [[FLT:]]] kuphatikizapo chitetezero cha ngozi choŵirikizapo chimodzi m'chigawo (11), chimene chimabwerera pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kutsimikizidwa komaliza, koma popanda umboni watsopano umene sukanaperekedwa. Chilamulo cha Ulaya chimasonyeza mfundo za ufulu wa [FLT] [FFF: [2] mu protomsssssss], ngakhale kuti chikane.

Kumaliza: Kulinganiza Mapeto ndi Chilungamo

Kupereka zitetezero za ngozi ziŵiri pa kuchonderera kwa apandu kuli kachitidwe kochenjera. Malamulo akuti palibe amene amazengedwa mlandu umodzimodziwo, komabe njira ya kuweruza iyenera kulola kuwongolera zolakwa za lamulo popanda kupereka mpata wachiŵiri. Makhoti amapanga mizere yosamala: ngati umboni wa mlanduwo unali wofooka kwambiri kuchirikiza chigamulo, woimbidwa mlanduyo amamasulidwa / Bomalo linatha kukhala ndi tsiku lake m’khoti ndipo linatayika. Koma ngati mlanduwo unaipitsidwa ndi kulakwa kwa procdedtura, boma lingapeze malowo, chifukwa chakuti mlandu woyambawo sunali wabwino.

Chiphunzitso cha uchifumu wamitundu iŵiri ndi kulakwa kwa milandu zimasonyeza kuti kuwopsa kwa kaŵiri sikuli chitetezero chotheratu, koma kudakali chimodzi cha zitetezero zamphamvu kwambiri pa nkhanza ya ozembetsa ndi kuvutitsa boma. Monga momwe khoti Lapamwamba lanenera, lamulo la "lokhazikika" limasonyeza kuti anthu onse ali ndi chidwi chachikulu pa kutha kwa zigamulo zaupandu. Kwa aliyense woyendetsa dongosolo la milandu yaupandu. "Kukhala ngati wozengedwa mlandu, loimira, kapena nzika yodera nkhaŵa, kumvetsetsa kuwopsa kochitidwa pa apilo kuli kofunika kuyamikira chitetezo chimene chimasunga chilungamo ndi kuchepetsa mphamvu ya boma.

Kuphunzira zambiri, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Cornell Information shopensi ya maupandu oŵirikiza , pendani chigamulo chachikulu cha Khoti Lalikulu Benton v. Maryland [1], kapena kufufuza [[FLT:] chuma cha judicary pa ngozi .