Table of Contents
Kugaŵana Kosaiŵalika: Boma Loona za Ufulu ndi Ntchito
United States Constitution, monga momwe inalembedwera poyamba, inakhazikitsa boma la boma la maulamuliro oŵerengedwa. Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nzika imene inalephera kulankhula mwaufulu ndi boma lokhazikitsa malamulo. Malamulo aŵiri ameneŵa a ufulu anasiya anthu osavuta kulanda boma, mpata umene sukanaperekedwa mokwanira kufikira kupangidwa kwa Gemeterrament ya 145 ndi kuyambika kwa [FLT:] chiphunzitso chotsatirapo.
Chigamulo cha Khoti Lapamwamba mu 1833 mu Barron v. Baltimore . John Barton anali ndi malo osungiramo zinthu ku Baltimore amene anakhala osathandiza pamene mzinda unapatutsa mitsinje pomanga misewu. Iye adatsutsa kuti mzindawo unali utatenga katundu wake popanda kulipira, kuswa Lamulo lachisanu. Woweruza wamkulu John Marshall, kulemba za Khoti lachivolimwe, anakhulupirira kuti Bill of Rights inagwira ntchito ku boma la boma, osati ku maboma. Chigamulo chinasiya eni nyumba ndipo, mwachiwonjeze, nzika zonse zofunikira kuchitapo kanthu popanda chitetezo. Chigamulochi chinakhalako kwa zaka makumi ambiri, poitana kuti chisinthike mfundo zazikulu za malamulowo.
Lamulo la 14 Lowonjezera: Padzasintha Zinthu
Pambuyo pa Nkhondo ya Chiŵeniŵeni, Congress inalinganiza Kusintha kwa 14 ndi kutsimikizira kuti maboma akale a akapolo sangachotse ufulu wawo. Kusintha kwake mu 1868 kunayambitsa njira yatsopano ya ulamuliro wa boma. Chigawo choyamba chinalengeza kuti palibe boma “lidzawononga munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoikidwiratu ya lamulo; kapena kukana kwa munthu aliyense amene ali ndi mphamvu yofanana ndi malamulo. Chinenero cha Fashod Claus Claus [[FLD: 1] chinakhala galimoto yoyamba imene Bill of Rights anagwiritsiridwa ntchito pambuyo pake ku malamulowo.
Komabe kuthekera kokwanira kwa Kusintha kwa 14nete sikunazindikiridwa nthaŵi yomweyo. Cases-Nyumba (1873), Khoti Lalikulu linachepetsa kwambiri ukulu wa Privigeges kapena Immunonies Classionee [[FLT:]], kugwiritsa ntchito ufulu umene unasungidwa ndi boma la boma, (a wochepa). Kumasulira kumeneku kunatseka khomolo kupyola pa chikalatacho kwa zaka pafupifupi 150, mpaka kudzudzutsidwa kwa mbali ina mu [FLT:]. . [1] [1] [1] [1] . . [1] [1]
Kusankha Kugwirizana Konse
Woweruza Hugo Brandeis ndi Woweruza William Brennan anachirikiza “kuloŵetsedwamo kwa [1] – lingaliro lakuti Curve Process Claus ayenera kugwiritsira ntchito Bill of Rights yonse ku maboma, m'kusintha kumodzi. Komabe, Jasitisi Louis Brandeis ndi ena, anayanja njira yowonjezereka ya kulinganiza, akumati ufulu wokhawo umene unalingaliridwa kukhala “wogwirizana ndi kakonzedwe kachiweruzo ka Amereka” uyenera kuphatikizidwa. Khoti linavomereza lingaliro lomaliziralo, kufufuza ufulu uliwonse kutsimikizira kaya uli wofunika ku ufulu ndi chilungamo.
Pansi pa kusankha kuphatikizapo [1] , khoti limafunsa kuti: Kodi kuyenera kumeneku kuli “kugwirizana ndi lingaliro la ufulu wolamulidwa"? Ngati inde, kumaphatikizidwa kupyolera m'Cend Claus ndi kugwira ntchito ku maboma. Ngati ayi, kuyenera kumakhalabe chiletso cha boma. Nkhani imeneyi yalola Khoti kugwiritsa ntchito malamulo oyendetsera zinthu kusintha mikhalidwe, koma yalimbikitsanso kusuliza mfundo zake ndi kusinthasintha kwa zinthu.
Nkhani Zosonyeza Kusankha
Mpumulo Woyamba: Ufulu wa Kulankhula ndi Kusindikiza
Khoti Lapamwamba linadutsa malo oyamba oloŵerapo [[FLT: 0] Getlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow anaimbidwa mlandu ndi lamulo laupandu la New York loletsa kufalitsa kabuku ka Socialism. Iye anatsutsa lamulo lake la ufulu wa kumasuka ku malankhulidwe , panthaŵi yake, logwiritsiridwa ntchito mwachindunji ku Congress. M’chivomezi chachikulu, Khoti linalingalira kuti “ufulu wa kulankhula ndi wa kusindikiza zimene zatetezeredwa ndi malamulo a Commergament ku ma Commorrection ndi Courage ndi mapangano a munthu mwini ndi ‘ kutetezedwa ndi kuperekedwa kwa malingana ndi njira yoyenerera ya kuchotsedwa kwa 141 kuchokera ku United States. Pamene Khotilo linalo linachirikiza kuvomerezedwa ndi lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la ufulu wa kudziko. [FF4] [F4] mu nkhani yoyamba ya Baibulo la Baibulo la Baibulo lakuwonjezera: [Fose.]
Lamulo Lachinayi Lowonjezera: Kufufuza ndi Kubisa Kopanda Nzeru
Chisankho chachinayi chimateteza ku kufufuza kosayenera ndi kugwidwa ndi matenda ndipo chimafunikira zilolezo zozikidwa pa chochititsa chothekera. Wolf v. Colorado (1949), Khoti linaphatikiza kuyenera kwa kumasuka ku kusanthula kosalingalira, koma kwakukulukulu sikunatenge lamulo la kuchotsa, limene limapereka umboni wopezedwa mosakhala lamulo. Mapule anapanga ntchito imene anthu sangagwiritsidwe ntchito pozedwa mlandu. Imeneyi inapangidwa ndi ntchito imene anthu angasunge nayo chifukwa cha kuswa lamulo koma sakanatha kutsendereza umboni m’khoti. Khotilo linasintha njira mu [FLT:] v. [193] [FG.FLT]) yosagwirizana ndi njira yotsendeka kutsutsa njira ya chigamu. Dollep anali kuimbidwa mlandu wa kumbuyo kwa apolisi popanda ntchito. Khoti lalikululo linalo linalo likugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi kukhazikitsa lamulo lakusintha kwa lamulo la kukhazikitsa chigamu. [F.]
Kusintha kwa Gawo Lachisanu: Kudzivulaza ndi Kudziika Paupandu Kaŵiri
Chisinthiko chachisanu chimaphatikizapo chitetezo cha kudzivulaza, ngozi yoŵirikiza, ndi kuyenera kwa kuweruza kokulira. Kuphatikiza kotchuka kwambiri kunachitika ku [FL: 0] Mainda v. Arizona (1966], imene inagwiritsira ntchito njira yodzitetezera yodziimira yokha ku maboma ndi kukhazikitsa machenjezo a Mirnda. Koma kuopsa koŵiri kunaikidwa poyamba [[FLT:]] Ben v. Maryland [6] [6]], imene inapereka chitsanzo chanthaŵi yaitali [FLT] [FL:4]]. Connet [vFLT] [197]) yosagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi chitetezero cholembedwa ndi chikalata choyambirira.
Lamulo Lowonjezera Lachisanu ndi Chimodzi: Zitetezero Zabwino za Mlandu
Ziganizo zochepa ziri monga zowonetsera m'kuloŵetsedwa kwa lamulo monga [[FLT: 0] Gedione . Wainwright . (1963). Clarence Earl Gideon adapatsidwa mlandu wakuswa nyumba ya meter Florida. Kusakhoza kupatsa loya, iye anapempha limodzi, koma lamulo la Florida linapereka uphungu wa milandu yaikulu yokha. Gideoni anadzitetezera yekha ndipo anaimbidwa mlandu. M'makalata ake a Pa Khoti Lapamwamba, adatsutsa kuyenera kwa Sikisiti kuti uphungu waswedwe. Khoti linavomereza limodzi, kuwonjezera chigamu chake cha poyamba mu [FLT:] [mabungwe]. [FFF2]. "BENFF: [FFF3], ngakhale kuti ndi m’Nyuzinsi , Superse. "NUfu]
Mpumulo Wachiŵiri: Ufulu wa Kusunga ndi Kunyamula Zida
Kwa zaka makumi ambiri, Kusintha kwachiŵiri sikunaloŵetsedwa m’Chilamulo chifukwa Khoti silinatsimikizire ngati linatetezera munthu aliyense ufulu wake wodziimira payekha pautumiki wa asilikali. Chimene chinasintha mu Diversion of Columbia v. Helter . (2008]], lomwe linakhulupirira kuti Kusintha kwachiŵiri kumateteza munthu aliyense ufulu wa kukhala ndi mfuti ya munthu payekha. Zaka ziŵiri pambuyo pake, ] Mcdald v. Chig. Chicagono [1] [12:] (20:0), Khoti imakhulupirira kuti ufulu umenewu ndi “chiyeneretso cha dziko la ufulu wa ufulu ” ndi kugwiritsa ntchito boma kupyola mu Programme ndi kuzungulira Claus Claus. Chilungamo cha Almony (Chilungamo chachi) Altiagicto chofala kulongosola za mbiri yosa. [F.4]
Kusintha kwa Malamulo Kwachisanu ndi Chisanu: Nkhanza ndi Chilango Chachilendo
Chitetezero pa belo lopambanitsa ndi chilango chankhanza ndi chachilendo chinaikidwa m'nkhani zingapo. Chiletso chankhanza ndi chachilendo chinagwiritsiridwa ntchito ku maiko mu Robinson v. California (1962]), chimene chinagwetsa lamulo lopanga kumwerekera ndi anamgoneka. Choyenera chochulukacho kupangitsa kumwerekera ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo kukhala upandu. Chotetezera chopambanitsacho chimaikidwa ndi njira ya Kusintha kwa Kusintha kwa Kusintha kwa Malamulo kwa Kumwamba [Timbs v. Indiana[FL:3] ndi kulakwa kwa dziko lachimonjezedwa ndi kulakwa kwa chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezero cha chiwonjezero cha chiwiri cha chiwonjezero cha chiwiri cha chiwo cha chiwiri cha chiwiri chokwanira pa mlandu wa kumbuyo kwa chiwonjezero cha TV. Chotsatira chikalata cha chikalata cha chikalata cha chikalata cha kumbuyo cha kumbuyo cha kumbuyo cha kumbuyo kwa anthu cha kumbuyo kwa anthu onse a kumbuyo kwakuti, cha
Chiyambukiro cha Kusankha pa Ufulu wa Boma wa Ufulu wa Ufulu wa Boma
Kuteteza: Kuteteza Boma Kukhoza Kuchepetsa Malire
Mbali yosangulutsa ya kugwiritsa ntchito kosankha iri yakuti “chilamulo chatsopano cholamulira. Mwachitsanzo, Kusintha Koyamba kumaletsa zoletsa zolankhula, koma malamulo ena a boma amapereka ngakhale zitetezero zazikulu za ntchito zolongosola, monga kulankhula mwaufulu m’masitolo. Khoti Lapamwamba la California, lodalira pa malamulo a boma, lakhala ndi ufulu wa kulankhula m’malo a zapathengo ngakhale kuti U. Supreme Court imalamulira (FFL: PF). Constitution )
Kumasulira Malo Oyenera a Khoti Lalikulu Kumathandiza
Makhoti aakulu a boma ayambitsa ziphunzitso zaufulu zomasulira malamulo awo, nthaŵi zina kuswa malamulo a boma. Izi zakhala zofunika kwambiri m'zochitika zaupandu. Mwachitsanzo, maboma ambiri akana “chikhulupiriro chabwino” ku lamulo loti apolisi apamwamba a m'mabwalo a U.S. atengedwa m' United States v. Leon[FL:1] [19984] [malamulo] [a] [a]. Maboma ameneŵa akhulupirira kuti umboni wopezeka kuchokera ku chiyeneretso chotsa kufunafuna chopanda pake, ngakhale ngati apolisi achita zinthu m’chikhulupiriro chabwino. M'malo aufulu, chiŵerengero chodabwitsa cha maiko oyambira kutetezera owonjezereka kudana ndi chitetezero chachikulu, pamene kuli kosiyana ndi chitetezero cha boma pansi pa [FUF:2].[V.[3]
Kulimbana ndi Magulu Osiyanasiyana
Kusankha kugawana kwakhala kosulizidwa kaamba ka kululuza ulamuliro wa boma mwa kukhazikitsa miyezo yadziko imodzi. Komabe kumachitiranso ulemu dongosolo la boma mwakulola maboma kuyesa ndi makonzedwe awo alamulo . malinga ngati saswa malo a boma. Kupsinjika kumeneku kwamphamvu kumasunga mbali ya makhoti a boma m'kuyeretsa ufulu wa munthu. Maboma akhoza kuchita monga malaboratola a demokrase, kuyesa njira zina zimene pambuyo pake zingayambukire boma la jurisprudence. Mwachitsanzo, maboma angapo adazindikira kale kuyenera kwa maphunziro kwa kuchirikiza malamulo awo onse a U. Supreme Court kuvomereza kuyenera kwa ufulu wa boma ([FLD:] Antonio Sexent . Rodriention School v. FLD [12], 1973]). Mofananamo, khotilo linatsogolera kuyenerera kwa kuyenerera kukwaniritsa ufulu wa ukwati (Fofrest").[3]
Kusuliza ndi Kutsutsana kwa Pambuyo Pake
Nkhani ya “Ufulu Wachikulire ””
Makampani osankha ali ndi chigamulo chakuti ufulu “uyenera kupatsidwa ufulu. Otsutsa amatsutsa kuyesa kumeneku mwachibadwa ndipo amalola khoti kukhazikitsa malamulo ake. Woweruza Hugo Black, wochirikiza wotsogolera wa kugwirizanitsa konseko, anachenjeza kuti kusankha kugamula kopanda chiweruziro kunapereka kugamula “kuyendayenda pa ukulu” posankha zoyenera kutetezera. Kutsutsana kwaposachedwapa kumasonyeza mfundo yakuti: Khoti lakhazikitsa ufulu wakunyamula zida koma lakana kugwirizanitsa kukhazikitsa Komphonya yachiŵiri m’njira imene idzatsimikizira kuti ufuluwo ukhoza kutsegulidwa. Akatswiri ena amatsutsa kuti Malamulo kapena Imnonity Claus, osati ma Classione, anali olinganizidwa kuti aloŵetsedwe, ndi kuti Bwalo la bwalo lamilandu silinadalira njira yake yoyenerera. [FFFF:]
Ntchito Yosasintha ya Kudetsedwa
Si mapangano onse a Bill of Rights amene aikidwa. Nkhani ya Third Amendment (asilikali) sinalowetsedwepo chifukwa chakuti palibe mlandu umene wafika ku Khoti. Chifuniro chachikulu cha Findth Amendment cha juli ya Findreep sichikuphatikizidwa. Kuyenera kwa Sevente Confterment kwa kuweruza kwa chiŵeruziro kwangokhala ndi mbali yokha; Khoti laletsa maboma kugamula oweruza milandu yachiŵeniŵeniŵeni. Malamulo ena, monga ngati kuwonjezera kwa Bbail Clauslee of the Exreeption, adangoloŵetsedwa posachedwapa ndi [[FL:0] madm'amb . Khoti lapeŵanso kukhazikitsa malamulo achiŵiri m'malonjezo, kusiya nkhani yotsegulira kaya imagwira ntchito kapena kuganitsa mlandu wapo.
Malamulo a Zandale ndi Zalamulo
Kuphatikizapo ufulu kumakhala kotchuka kwambiri. Malamulo a bungwe la Consorvative kaŵirikaŵiri amagogomezera mfundo za boma ndi zoletsa, akumakayikira ngati khotilo liyenera kukhazikitsa miyezo ya dziko pa maboma. Malamulo a libral amachirikiza kutetezeredwa kwakukulu kwa ufulu wa munthu aliyense payekha, kuona kuphatikizana kukhala kofunika kuti akhale nzika yofanana. Komabe kulinganiza kumeneku kungasinthe kudalira pa kumanja: Kuphatikiza kwachiŵiri Kolinganiza mu [FLT: 0] [McDonald [ adachirikizidwa ndi osunga malamulo otsa ufulumidwe ndi ufulu. Utsogoleri wa kugwirizanitsa ufulu wa lamulo uyeneranso kuchirikiza ufulu walamulo. Pamene khoti liphatikizapo ufulu, bwalo lamilandu liyenera kumasulira muyezo, koma iwonso kukulitsa mkhalidwe wa lamulo kupyola pa muyezo.
Kuyang’ana Kutsogolo: Tsogolo la Ufulu wa Boma Wokhudza Ufulu Walamulo
Kusankha kuli kokwanira tsopano; zambiri za Bill of Rights zikugwira ntchito ku maboma. Komabe ziyambukiro zake zikupitiriza kusintha pamene Bwalo Lapamwamba likukonza ukulu wa mlandu uliwonse wophatikizapo kuyenera. Milandu yaposachedwapa yonga Ramos v. Louisiana [20] anagwirizana kuti chikalata chopambanitsa cha Reformation ya Reformation chikhale chotsutsana ndi maboma, kukonza kulakwa kwakukulu kumene kunaloledwa kwa zaka makumi ambiri. M'mawu omwewo, [[FLT:] Timbs v. Indianaia. [FL:]
Pakali pano, makhoti a boma akudziloŵetsa m'kusanthula kolimba kwa malamulo awo. Khoti la Apilo la New York, linalamula kuti malamulo a boma amapereka chitetezo champhamvu kwambiri choletsa kuyang’anira kopanda lamulo kuposa Demeshoni Yachinayi ( Anthu v. Weaver, 2009]. Khoti Lapamwamba la Washington lakhala lolemekeza kwambiri malamulo a boma oletsa GPS kuyendera njira yosalowerapo ngakhale pamene kuyesa kwa boma kukulola. Zigamuzo zimenezi zikusonyeza kuti lamulo la malamulo a m'lamulo silili chabe njira yachiŵiri . Monga mmene U. S. Khoti Lamilandu Lapamwamba lamilandu lapamwamba limakhala lolemekezeka kwambiri m'madera ena, boma lingakhale malo aakulu osungira ufulu ufulu wa anthu.
Kumaliza
Kusankha ndiko maziko a ulamuliro wa dziko la America ndi ufulu wa munthu payekha. M’zaka za zana limodzi za mlandu wa mlandu, Khoti Lapamwamba lapanga Bill of Rights kukhala lamulo la boma, kutsimikizira kuti ufulu wapamwamba susiyidwa ku malingaliro a boma. Chiphunzitsocho chapanga maziko a chitetezo chimene maboma sangaswe, pamene kuli kwakuti kuteteza malo a boma. Malamulo a boma, asanduka ziŵiya zofunika kwambiri zopangitsira ufulu kupyola pa malamulo a boma. Pamene malamulo a malamulo a dziko akusintha, kugwirizanitsa pakati pa kugwirizanitsa ndi boma ndi kumasulira boma kudzapitiriza kulongosola zoyenera za Amereka. Kudziŵa bwino zochita kuli kofunika kwa aliyense amene akufuna kuzindikira mmene malamulowo amafikira moyo wathu wa tsiku ndi tsiku ndi tsiku kuchokera ku nthaŵi imene tikufuna kugwirizanitsa ndi kuunikana ndi lamulo.