Table of Contents
Chiyambi: Kusintha kwa Ufulu Wochita Zinthu Mwamphamvu
United States Constitution, yomwe inavomerezedwa mu 1788, inakhazikitsa dongosolo la kulamulira koma inasiya malamulo ake ambiri otseguka kumasulira. Mkati mwa zaka mazana ambiri, Bwalo Lapamwamba lamilandu lakhala lothandiza kwambiri kumasulira tanthauzo la malamulo, kugamula zimene zasintha kwambiri chitaganya cha America. Nkhani za malamulo zasonyeza kulinganiza kwa mphamvu pakati pa nthambi za boma, kufutukula ufulu wa munthu payekha, ndi kukonzanso kupanda chilungamo koikidwa m’malamulo. Malamulo ameneŵa sanatuluke mwachize; anayankha ku zipani za anthu, mavuto andale, ndi kumvetsetsa mfundo za kulingana ndi ufulu. Kumvetsa nkhani zimenezi nkofunika kwambiri pomvetsa mmene ufulu walamulo suyenera kukhalira wokhazikika koma umayesedwabe ndi kukonzedwanso mwa kupenda kwachiweruzo kwachiweruzo.
Marbury vesi: Madison (103): The Bedrock of Judicial Review
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
M’maola akutha a ulamuliro wa Pulezidenti John Adams, kugamula kwachiweruzo kunachitidwa, kuphatikizapo William Marbury monga woweruza wa mtendere. Pamene Mlembi watsopano wa Boma, James Madison, anakana kupereka ntchito ya Marbury, Marbury anapempha Khoti Lapamwamba kupempha chipani cha Mandamus. Mlanduwo unakakamiza John Marshall kuyendetsa malo oimbidwa mlandu wa ndale pakati pa a Federalansi ndi Democratic Perblicans.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Marshall anagamula kuti Marbury anali ndi ufulu ku ntchito yake koma kuti Bwalo Lapamwamba silinapereke chikalata cha jaji chifukwa Chigawo 13 cha Chikalata cha Judiary cha 1789, chimene chinanenedwa kuti chipereke khotilo mphamvu, chinali chosagwirizana ndi boma. Kwanthaŵi yoyamba, Khoti Lalikulu linatsimikizira mphamvu ya [FLT: 0] kupenda [FLT:] [] mphamvu yoswa malamulo amene amatsutsana ndi Malamulo. Chigamulocho chinapeŵa kulimbana mwachindunji ndi nthambi yapamwamba pamene panthaŵi imodzi chinali kugwirizanitsa ntchito ya nthambi ya boma.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Marbury v. Madison anakhazikitsa Bwalo Lapamwamba monga womasulira womalizira wa Malamulo. Popanda chitsanzo chimenechi, zigamulo zotsatira monga Brown v. Board of Education ndi Obergefell v. Hodges sakhoza kukhala ndi ulamuliro wa kuchotsa boma ndi malamulo a boma. Nkhaniyi idakali maziko a lamulo lachimereka, kutsimikizira kuti malamulo ndi maulamuliro apamwamba akhalabe ogonjera ku malamulo. Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, [FLT: 0] kuona chidule cha Marbury v. Madison .
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Kutsutsa “Kulinganiza Koma Kolingana”
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Zaka makumi ambiri pambuyo pa Plessy v. Ferguson adavomereza kusankhidwa kwa mafuko pansi pa “chiphunzitso chosiyana ndi chofanana”, mabanja a ku Afirika anapitirizabe kuvutika pansi pa sukulu zotsika, malo a anthu onse, ndi zoyendera. Kuchiyambi kwa 1950, NaCP Legal Defense Fund , yotsogozedwa ndi Thirmall, inalinganiza chitokoso ku kugawa m'masukulu a anthu onse. Mlanduwo unakhazikitsa milandu isanu yosiyana, ndi Diorence Brown Linda mwana wamkazi wa Olive Brown akukanidwa kuloŵa sukulu yachigawo choyera mu Topeka, Kansa.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Jasitisi Wamkulu Earl Warren anapereka lingaliro limodzi lomwe linagwetsa [[FLT: 0] Plessy . Khotilo linanena kuti masukulu ogaŵanitsidwa ndi masukulu anali osalingana mwachibadwa, kumanidwa ana ochepa a mwaŵi wa maphunziro ngakhale pamene malo akuthupi ndi zinthu zina zowoneka zina zinali zofanana. Chigamulocho chinadalira pa Chitetezo cha Claus [ cha Domencedment ndi maphunziro amaganizo osonyezedwa osonyeza ziyambukiro zovulaza za ana a ku African America.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Brown v. Board of Education sanathetse mwamsanga kusiyanitsa sukulu .I anatenga zaka zambiri za kusungitsa ndi malamulo ena a boma . Koma inapereka maziko alamulo a gulu la ufulu wa anthu. Chinasonyeza kuti ajuli sakanalekereranso tsankho la boma ndi kukhazikitsa njira ya Chikalata cha ufulu wachibadwidwe cha 1964 ndi Chiletso cha Zoyenera za Board C.
Gideon (1963): Kuyenera kwa Uphungu
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Clarence Earl Gideon anali wopatuka wosauka woimbidwa mlandu wa kuswa m'chipinda cha m'madzi mu Florida. Polephera kupeza maloya, anapempha khoti kuti liike chilolezo chake. Boma linakana pempho lake, ndipo Gideoni anakakamizidwa kuimira iye mwini; anaimbidwa mlandu ndi kuweruzidwa kukhala zaka zisanu m’ndende. M’ndende yake, Gideon anagwetsa pempho ku Khoti Lapamwamba, akutsutsana kuti [[FLT:] Sixth Amendment Sixption] adaswa uphungu. Khoti linavomera kuti amve mlandu wake.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Pachigamulo chimodzi, Khoti Lalikulu linaletsa kulakwa kwake koyamba kuimirira Brady . Brady . (1942), imene inachepetsa kuyenera kwa kuikidwa kwa uphungu ku mikhalidwe yapadera. Woweruza Hugo Black analemba kuti maloya m'khoti la apandu ndi ofunika, osati zinthu zapamwamba, ndi kuti chitsimikizo cha Asanu ndi Asanu ndi Asanu ndi Asanu chimagwira ntchito ku maboma kudzera mu Processss Clacee [[FLD:3] Commergation. Khotilo linakhulupirira kuti munthu aliyense amene akupita kukhoti laling'ono laumphani sangakhale wodalirika kuweruza bwino popanda uphungu.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Gideon ndi Wainwright anasintha dongosolo la chiweruzo cha apandu. Maboma anafunikira kukhazikitsa madongosolo otetezera anthu kuti apereke chilolezo chalamulo kwa oimbidwa mlandu otsutsa. Chigamulochi chinalimbikitsa mfundo yakuti dongosolo la kulira kwa zida limadalira pa kufanana kwa zida ndi [1] popanda loya, kumenyanako sikunachitike bwino. Kukukhalabe maziko a njira zaupandu ndipo kwatchulidwa m'milandu yambiri yotsatira.
Miranda . Arizona (1966): Kuteteza Kulimbana ndi Kudzivutitsa
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Ernesto Miranda anamangidwa ku Phoenix, Arizona, pa milandu ya kuba anthu ndi kugwirira chigololo. Pambuyo pa maola aŵiri a apolisi akufunsidwa, anasaina chivomerezo chimene chinagwiritsidwa ntchito kumpatsa mlandu. Sanadziŵitse kuti ali ndi ufulu wakukhala chete kapena kuyenera kwake kwa loya. Maloya a Miranda ananena kuti kuululako kunakakamiza chifukwa kupezedwa popanda machenjezo ameneŵa, kuswa [[FLT: 0] Demestment [FLT] Mwayilo wodzitsutsa yekha.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Woweruza wamkulu Warren anakhazikitsa lingaliro latsopano lotetezera: apolisi ayenera kudziŵikitsa zoyenera zawo asanaikidwe mlandu wa oweruza. Tsopano “machenjezo a ku Miranda” amaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa kukhala chete, kuti chilichonse chimene chinenedwe chingagwiritsidwe ntchito pa inu m’khoti, kuyenera kwa loya, ndi kuti loya adzaikidwa ngati simukhoza kugula. Khoti linagamula kuti kuvomereza kulikonse kochitidwa popanda machenjezo ameneŵa sikungachitike m’khoti.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Miranda ndi Arizona anasintha kwambiri zochita za apolisi m'dziko lonselo. Pamene kuli kwakuti ena akusuliza monga kusungitsa malamulo, chosankha chinalimbikitsa kudzikuza kwa kuulula machimo ndi lamulo lakuti boma liyenera kulemekeza ufulu wa munthu aliyense ngakhale polondola chilungamo. Miranda adakali mbali yaikulu ya masewero a upandu wa pa wailesi yakanema koma chiyambukiro chake chenicheni nchachikulu: Chimapereka muyezo wowonekera bwino, wokakamiza kutetezera ku kudzikakamiza kulakwa.
Long v. Virginia (1967): Kugonjetsa Malamulo Oletsa Misikireni
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Richard Loving, mwamuna wachiyera, ndi Mildred Jeter, mkazi Wakuda, anakwatiwa ku Washington, D.C., mu 1958. Atabwerera ku Virginia, anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuswa lamulo la boma la Universeal, limene linaletsa ukwati wa mafuko osiyanasiyana. Anachonderera mlandu, anaweruzidwa kukhala m’ndende chaka chimodzi (pokhala atachoka m’bomalo) ndipo anasamukira ku D.C. Atatsimikiza kubwerera kwawo, A Lovings anatsutsa lamulolo ndi thandizo la ACLU.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Woweruza wamkulu Warren analembanso lingaliro logwirizana. Khotilo linatsutsa lamulo la Virginia lomweli lakutetezera Claus [1] ndi Serget Procession Claus [1] la Demendment . Khoti linakana mfundo yakuti lamulo silinali lopalamula chifukwa limagwira ntchito mofanana kwa mafuko onse, osati kuti linalinganizidwa kusungitsa malamulo a a zungu. Chigamulo chinagamula kuti likhale lotsutsa malamulo a kulembera a magetsi mu 16 chikalata chimene chinali chidakalipobe.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Wokonda Virginia anatsimikizira kuti ukwati uli ufulu wofunika kwambiri ndi kuti maudindo aufuko amafufuzidwa kwambiri. Ilo linachotsa zopinga za boma zosonkhezera mafuko aukwati ndi kukhazikitsa chitsanzo chofunika kwambiri cha milandu yapambuyo pake yophatikizapo kuyenera kwa kukwatira, kuphatikizapo bergefell v. Hodges [1] (2015). Mlanduwo udakali chizindikiro champhamvu cha chitetezo cha ufulu ndi kulingana kwa malamulo.
United States v. Nixon (1974): Palibe Amene Ali Pamwamba pa Chilamulo
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Pankhani yochititsa manyazi ya Watergate, loya wapadera anajambula tepi ndi zikalata za makambitsirano pakati pa Pulezidenti Richard Nixon ndi chithandizo chake. Nixon ananena kuti mwayi wophera mlandu ndi kukana kuvomereza, akumanena kuti matepiwo anatetezeredwa ku kuulutsidwa. Mlanduwo unabutsa mkangano walamulo pakati pa zimene pulezidenti ananena za kubisa mawu ndi judiaia kuti afunikire umboni wa kufufuza kwaupandu.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Woweruza wamkulu Warren Burger, Mtsogoleri wa Nixon, anapereka lingaliro logwirizana. Khotilo linavomereza mwaŵi woyenerera wa kulankhulitsa kwa pulezidenti koma linavomereza kuti silingagwiritsiridwe ntchito kutetezera umboni m'ndende ya apandu. Kufunikira kwa umboni m'kuzenga kolungama kunaposa chikondwerero chachinsinsi chachinsinsi. Khotilo linalamula Nixon kutembenuza matepi, zimene zinavumbula kuloŵetsedwa kwake m'chikuto. Kuyang’anizana ndi kulephera, Nixon analeka ntchito mwamsanga pambuyo pa chigamulocho.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
United States v. Nixon anagogomeza mfundo yofunika yakuti Prezidenti sali pamwamba pa lamulo. Inakhazikitsa kuti oweruza ali ndi ulamuliro wofuna kuti nthambi yaikulu ipereke umboni pansi pa papa. Mlanduwo unakhazikitsanso chitsanzo cha mikangano yapatsogolo pa udindo waudindo, kuphatikizapo pa nthaŵi ya ulamuliro wa Clinton ndi Trump. Chikuyang'anirabe mphamvu ya pulezidenti.
Kusunga Zinthu Zobisika
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
Norma McCorvey, , pansi pa dzina lopeka lakuti “Jane Roe,” anatsutsa lamulo la Texas lakuti kuchotsa mimba kunapha kusiyapo kupulumutsa moyo wa mkazi. Mlandu unali mbali ya njira yokulirapo yochirikizira ufulu wakubala yovomereza kuti makhoti akuvomereza kuyenera kwa kuchotsa mimba. Panthaŵiyo, maboma ambiri anali ndi malamulo oletsa kuchotsa mimba, ndipo akazi kaŵirikaŵiri anafuna njira zoletsedwa ndi zosatetezereka.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Jasitisi Harry Blackmun anakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kwa kubisika , kosonyezedwa ndi Account Process Claus of the 14neth Amendment, kuphatikizapo chosankha cha mkazi cha kuchotsa mimba yake. Khoti linakhazikitsa maziko ochepetsa: mkati mwa kuchotsa mimba koyamba, boma silingakhoze kulamulira kuchotsa mimba; mkati mwa yachiŵiri, likhoza kulamulira kutetezera thanzi la mkazi; mkati mwa lachitatu, pambuyo pa kukhoza kuchotsa mimba, ikaletsa kupatulapo moyo kapena thanzi la mkazi.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Roe v. Wade anakhala chimodzi cha zigamulo zotsutsana kwambiri m'mbiri ya Amereka. Inalola kutaya mimba m'dziko lonselo ndipo inayambitsa nkhondo zopitirizabe za ndale ndi zamalamulo zotsutsa ufulu wobala. Pamene chigamulocho chinagwetsedwa ndi Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [2022], kubwezera nkhaniyo ku maiko, choloŵa cha Roe chidakalibebe monga kuvomereza kodziŵika kwa malamulo achinsinsi. Mlandu wotsatirapo anachinjiriza zosankha zina zaumwini, monga kuyenera kwa kugwiritsira ntchito kuletsa mimba ndi kuyanjana kwa kugonana kwachiŵa.
Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Kulingana kwa Mabanja a Anthu Ofanana Ogonana
Kuchokera Kumbuyo ndi Malemba
James Obergefell ndi John Arthur anali pamodzi kwa zaka zoposa 20 pamene Arthur anadwala matenda aakulu. Iwo anachoka ku Ohio kupita ku Maryland, kumene ukwati wa kugonana unali wovomerezeka, kukwatira. Pamene Arthur anamwalira, Ohio anakana kutchula Obergefell monga mkazi wotsala pa chikalata cha imfa. Obergefell sued, ndipo mlandu wake unaikidwa pamodzi ndi ziletso zina zothetsa ukwati wa pakati pa anthu aŵiriwo ndi kukana kuvomereza maukwati a anthu a kuseri kwa dziko limodzi.
Kulingalira kwa Malamulo ndi Zotulukapo Zake
Woweruza Anthony Kennedy anakhulupirira kuti kuyenera kwa kukwatira ndi kuyenera kwakukulu kotsimikiziridwa ndi Fact Clause ndi Equal Protection Claus ya Kukonzanso ukwati wa 14. Khoti linapeza kuti ukwati uli pakati pa ufulu wa munthu aliyense, chizindikiritso, ndi ulemu, ndi kuti okwatirana auyenera kukondedwa ndi lamulo losiyana ndi okwatirana a extrate. Chigamulo chinakantha ndi chiletso cha ukwati chofananacho m'malamulo cha 1449.
Chiyambukiro pa Ufulu wa Malamulo
Obergefell v. Hodges inali chipambano chosintha LGBTQ+ zoyenera. Inathetsa mkangano wa dziko wogaŵanika ndi kupatsa okwatirana auchimuna omwewo kulowa muukwati, limodzi ndi mapindu ake alamulo ndi kudziŵika kwa anthu. Nkhaniyo inamangidwanso pa chitsanzo kuchokera ku Virginia . Virginia ndi United States v. Windsor (2013]), kusonyeza mmene malamulo amatetezera munthu ndi kulingana kwa munthu mwiniyo kwa nthaŵi.
Zizindikiro Zina: Gideon, New York Times v. Sullivan, ndi Heller
Gideon ndi Wainwright (1963)
Monga momwe kwafotokozera, Gideon anakhazikitsa kuyenera kwa kupereka uphungu kwa oimbidwa mlandu. Ndi mbali yofunika kwambiri ya Confective ndi kutsimikizira chilungamo cha dongosolo la milandu. Kuyang'ana mozama, onani Cornell Legal Information Institute ya .
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Mlandu umenewu unasintha lamulo laufulu la kulankhula mwa kuchepetsa kukhoza kwa akuluakulu a boma kuimbidwa mlandu. Khotilo linanena kuti First Amendment ikufuna umboni wa “njiru yachibadwa” kubwezera zivulazo m'zochitika zoperekedwa ndi anthu. Chigamulo chimenechi chinapereka chitetezo cholimba kwa akuluakulu a boma ndi kukhala maziko a ufulu wosindikiza.
Chigawo cha Columbia ndi Heller (2008)
Heller anali mlandu woyamba wa Khoti Lapamwamba kumasulira Demendment monga kutetezera kuyenera kwa munthu kukhala ndi mfuti yodzitetezera m’nyumba. Chigamulocho chinakantha Washington, D.C. chiletso cha mfuti ndi kuyambitsa mikangano yopitirizabe yokhudza malamulo a mfuti. Icho chinazindikira kuti kulamanja sikuli kopanda malire ndi kumanzere kaamba ka ziletso zoyenerera.
Mapeto ake: Lamulo Lomwe Lili ndi Moyo
Nkhani zolembedwa monga za paland zofotokozedwa pamwambapa zimasonyeza kukhoza kwa Malamulowo kukula ndi kuzoloŵera. Kuyambira kukhazikitsa kupenda kwachiweruzo mu Marbury v. Madison kuvomereza kulingana kwa ukwati mu . Hodgees , Khoti Lapamwamba] latsimikizira mobwerezabwereza kuti ufulu walamulo sunasunthidwe m'nthaŵi yake. Chigamulo chirichonse cha kulinganiza kwa chitaganya, ndale zadziko, ndi mkhalidwe wa makhalidwe a nyengo yake, ndipo ambiri ayambitsa makambitsirano aukali ndipo ngakhale kubwerera. Komabe njira ya kumasulira kwa lamulolo ikupitiriza kutsimikizira kuti chikalatacho chimakhala choyenerera kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Kwa ophunzira, ndi nzika zofanana, izi zimapereka mapu a ufulu wa ufulu wa kulingana ndi kulingana ndi kulingana kwake ndi kumvetsetsa kwake kwa mbiri yakale ya kulongosola kwa kulongosola kwa chilungamo.