Kuyenera kwa kutetezeredwa mofanana pansi pa lamulo kuli limodzi la malamulo amphamvu ndi otsutsana ndi lamulo la America. Osungidwa mu 14neth Amendment, chitsimikizo chimenechi chimafunikira kuti anthu mofananamo achitidwe mofanana ndi oseŵera a boma, osakhala ndi chilungamitso champhamvu cha kuchitiridwa mosiyana. Pazaka 150 zapitazo, Khoti Lapamwamba la United States lamasulira Chitetezo cha Ault Claus m’njira zimene zachirikiza kukondera ndi kusintha kwa kakhalidwe ka anthu. Kumvetsetsa zitsanzo zalamulo zimene zapanga chiphunzitso chimenechi nkofunika kwambiri pomvetsa mmene malamulo a ku America amafotokozera chilungamo, ufulu, ndi chilungamo.

Kufufuza kofanana ndi kuteteza masiku ano kumayendera njira yofufuzira zinthu zambiri monga malo, pakati, ndi maziko oyenerera. Iliyonse imagwiritsidwa ntchito potengera mtundu wa nkhani (mtundu, mwamuna, kapena ulamuliro wa zachuma). Miyezo imeneyi sinapangidwe mokwanira; inamangidwa mwachitsanzo, kaŵirikaŵiri pankhondo zolimba zimene zinasonyeza kuti dziko likusintha makhalidwe abwino ndi zandale. Nkhaniyi ikufufuza zochitika zimene zinayambitsa, kufutukuka, ndi kuwongolera kuyenera kwa kuteteza, pamene ikufufuzanso mavuto amakono amene akuyesabe kupambana kwake.

Lamulo la 14 Lowonjezera ndi Kuyambika kwa Chiphunzitso Cholingana cha Chitetezo

, Chigawo cha Kutetezera Claus, chovomerezedwa mu 1868 monga mbali ya Jeneth Amendment, chimapereka kuti: “Palibe Boma limene lidzakana munthu aliyense wokhala m’ulamuliro wake chitetezo chofanana cha malamulo.” Pachiyambi cholinganizidwira kutetezera ufulu wa Aafirika omasulidwa chatsopano, mawuwo anasiya kumasulira mbali zambiri za kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19. Khoti Lalikulu linamasulira mopereŵera pa nthaŵi ya Reconson Eramentment . Linalo linagamula kuti likhale Nyumba ya Mapeni [[FLT:] (1873] [73] ndi [FL:] United States. Crushhank [1] [7] mphamvu yopatuka kwambiri pa [Geneaul:] (186])

Nkhani Yokonzanso

Demetrisement ya 144 inali nsanja yaikulu ya programu ya Republican Reconstructon . Inalinganizidwira kugwetsa chigamulo cha mbiri yoipa Scott v. Sandford ndi kukhazikitsa lamulo la Chikalata cha Chilolezo cha Ufulu wa Chibadwidwe cha 18666, chimene chinatsimikizira kukhala nzika ndi ufulu wolingana kwa anthu onse obadwa ku United States. Otsogolera, motsogozedwa ndi Mtsogoleri John Bingham ndi Saint Jacob Howard, anafuna kukhazikitsa muyezo wa dziko lonse wa kulingana ndi ulamuliro wa nkhondo wa prebrecivil. Komabe Khoti Lapamwamba linawononga ufulu wa anthu onse amene anabadwa ku United States mwa kukwaniritsa lonjezolo kuti sanapatule tsankho ndi ufulu waukulu.

“ Palibe Boma... limene lidzakana munthu aliyense wokhala m’ulamuliro wake kutetezeredwa kofanana kwa malamulo.” — U.S. amend. XIV, NZA 1.

Kwa zaka makumi ambiri, bungwe la Aumeal Protection Claus linagwiritsiridwa ntchito kwakukulukulu ndi mabungwe odzinenera kuti malamulo a boma analanda iwo kuchitiridwa kofanana ndi kuchitidwa kwa zifuno zoyambirira za chikalatacho.

Kuyamba kwa Miyezo ya Kufufuza Yamakono

Chitetezo chamakono chofanana ndi ndandanda ya kupenda milandu. Kupenda kosamalitsa, muyezo wovuta kwambiri, kumagwira ntchito ku magawo ozikidwa pa fuko, mtundu, ndi kuchokera; malamulo oterowo amasungidwa kokha ngati atumikira chikondwerero chokakamiza cha boma ndi kukonzedwa. Kufufuza kwamakono kumagwira ntchito kukakhala ndi magawo a mwamuna ndi mkazi ndi kusamverana, kukufuna kuti pakhale cholinga chofunika kwambiri cha boma ndi unansi waukulu ku cholinga chimenecho. Rationalalnal imagwiritsa ntchito malamulo ena onse, kuyerekezera ndi malamulo ena onse, pokhapo ngati sagwirizana ndi mfundo zalamulo lomveka bwino. Chiyambirechi chinachokera ku zochitika zotsalira chiphunzitsocho m'zaka za zana la makumi aŵiri.

Zosonyeza Kuteteza Kofanana ndi Kwawo

Nkhani zotsatirazi zikuimira mfundo zosinthasintha pa kumasulira ndi kugwiritsa ntchito buku la Acticolence Protection Claus (Kuteteza Claus Wolingana) ndipo aliyense anafunsa funso lofunika lokhudza amene ali woyenerera, zimene chilungamo chimafuna, ndi mmene boma lingapangire anthu kuti asiyane.

Ferguson (1896): Chiphunzitso chakuti “Wosiyana Koma Wolingana”

Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. (1896), Bwalo Lapamwamba linachirikiza lamulo la Louisiana lofuna kuti anthu asiyane m'magalimoto a sitima. Homer Plessy, mwamuna wa fuko limodzi la 888 wa ku Africa, anatsutsa lamulo monga kuswa chitetezo cha Claus, koma Khoti linakana kuvomereza mfundo zake ndi voti 7 761. Woweruza wina analingalira kuti, Henry Brown sanasonyeze kutsika kwa fuko lililonse, malinga ndi mmene malo ake analili. Lamulolo linapanga “kufanana koma lofanana ndi lokhala ndi lamulo lalamulo la Jim Crow kudutsa malamulo a Kummwere kwa zaka makumi asanu ndi limodzi. Chilungamo cha Chilungamo, ngakhale kuli kosiyana ndi kugamuluza kopanda kugawa kwa anthu amtundu wa bishopu, ndipo silinaloleza pakati pa anthu a bishopu."

[[FLT : 0] Plassity [[FLT :1] imaimira monga chitsanzo chochenjeza cha mmene Chitetezo cha Claus cholingana chingapotozedwe kuchirikiza kusalingana kwa zinthu. Kukana kwa Khoti kuyang'ana kupyola pa kulingana kwa lamulo kwa dziko lapansi ndi kusoŵa kwa zinthu kumene kwachitidwa . Kuvumbula malire a lamulo la boma lokha lofuna uchete pa nkhope yake. Chigamulocho sichinali cholamuliridwa kotheratu kufikira Brown v. Board of Education [FLD:3] (11954]).

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Imfa ya “Kulekanitsa Koma Kulingana”

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (54), ndi chigamulo chofunika kwambiri cha Bwalo Lapamwamba la zana la makumi aŵiri. Pachigamulo chimodzi cholembedwa ndi Mfumu Justice Earl Warren , Bwalo linavomereza kuti kusankhana mafuko m’masukulu a anthu kunaswa Chitetezo cha Unit Claus. Khotilo linapeza kuti “masukulu ambiri ngosakwanira, akukana Pylset [FLD]. Chigamu chachi chigamulo chinalemba pa umboni wa maganizo ndi wa za sayansi ya za anthu. Monga “kufufuza kotchuka kwa Kenneth ndi Masclass [Clans] kuti malingaliro a ana a ku America akakhala otsika.

“ Malo a maphunziro salingana mwachibadwa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Brown[[FLT :1] sanathetse mwamsanga kuchotsa pagulu; panafunikiranso kuvomereza kowonjezereka (monga ngati Brown II [ ndi ] Copern v. Aaron ) ndi kuloŵerera kwa boma kwa kukakamiza kuchotsa. Chigamulocho chinasintha kwambiri tanthauzo la chitetezo cholingana mwa kukakamiza kulinganiza kuyang'aniridwa kwa zipambano zenizeni ndi tanthauzo la kakhalidwe, osati kokha nkhope ya lamulo. Brown [FLT:] inayalanso maziko kaamba ka gulu la anthu, kutsutsa kupikisana kwa moyo uliwonse.

Kuthetsa Malo Oletsa Utundu ku Ukwati

Mu Lovang v. Virginia, 388 U.S. (1967), Bwalo Lapamwamba linawononga lamulo la Virginia la kuletsa kukwatira kwa mafuko osiyanasiyana, limene linagwiritsira ntchito kusanthula kosamalitsa kwa fukolo ndi kupeza kuti lamulo silinatumikire chifuno choyenera kusiyapo kusungitsa ulamuliro wa oyera. Chilungamo cha Kazembe Warren, kachiŵirinso kulemba za Khoti, anakhulupirira kuti “ufulu wa kukwatira, kapena wosakwatira, munthu wa fuko lina amakhala ndi munthu mmodzi ndipo sangatsutsidwe ndi Boma. [[FLT:] Loving] pepala lotetezera lofanana ndi lokhudzana ndi “anthu aufuko aunyiridwa ndi anthu ambiri.

Reed Ved (1971): Kulingana kwa Makhalidwe Kumatenga Muzu

Kwa mbiri yaikulu ya Amereka, Bwalo Lapamwamba linakana kugwiritsira ntchito kusanthula kowonjezereka kwa kupendedwa kwa amuna ndi akazi, kaŵirikaŵiri kutchula za mbali zamwambo za kugonana. Kusinthako mu Reed v. Reed[FL:1], 404 U.S. 7111, kumene Khoti linawononga lamulo la Idaho limene linapatsa amuna chikondi chamwambo pa akazi monga oyang’anira malo. Ngakhale kuti lingalirolo silinanenetse mayeso olinganizidwa, inali nthaŵi yoyamba khotilo linataya lamulo la kuchotsapo kuyera kwa kugonana pansi pa Klasma. Zaka ziŵiri pambuyo pake, [FLT:] Fronsoson. Richard: [FF.3]

United States ndi Virginia (1996): Kutetezera Kofanana ndi Kusintha kwa Mabuku

Mu United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, Khoti Lapamwamba linalankhula ndi amuna kuvomereza malamulo a Virginia Military Institute (VMI). Boma linatsutsa kuti maphunziro amodzi a 76sex analoledwa, koma Bwalo, m’lingaliro la Jah, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, linakhulupirira kuti malamulowo anaswa Mtengo wa Umboni wa Pakatikati. Potchula mfundo zopendedwa, Khotilo linapeza kuti Virginia inalephera kupereka “kulungamitsidwa kokopa kwa akazi. Chigamulo cha kuvomereza ndi kugogomezera lamulo lachindunji lakuti kugonana kuyenera kukhala koyenera kutumikira maudindo a boma ndi kukwaniritsa zolinga zina. Chilungamo cha Gsburg chigogomezeredwa pa mfundo yosayenera kuteteza akazi.

Washington v. Davis (1976): Lamulo Losasintha

Si magulu onse amene amapanga ziyambukiro zaufuluzo zimene zili zosagwirizana. Mu Sharhington v. Davis , 426 U.S.29 Khoti Lalikulu linavomereza kuti lamulo kapena malamulo otsutsidwa pansi pa chitetezero cha Claus ayenera kusonyezedwa kukhala ndi chiyambukiro cha discious cholinga . [osati chiwopsezo chabe chachiwiri. Mlandu wolembedwa kaamba ka apolisi amene zikalata za Aafirika zinalephera pamlingo woposa wa zikalata zachiyera. Khotilo linakana kuletsa mphamvu yosagwirizana ndi malamulo, kukhazikitsa zimene zina zonena za Substern Invity [194] kuletsa kuletsa kuletsa kulakwa kwachimwina. [4]

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003): Kulimbitsa Ntchito ndi Chitetezo Cholingana

Funso la kuvomereza maprogramu a kuvomereza limatsutsana ndi Kutetezera kwa Michigan Claus kufikira Khoti Lapamwamba mu [FLT: 0] Gridge v. Bollinger ., 539 U.S. 306 (2003). Khoti linachirikiza yunivesite ya Michigan Law School yovomerezeka, imene inalingalira kuti fuko la ambiri lingakhale ngati chinthu chimodzi chofunikira kuti likhale bungwe la ophunzira osiyanasiyana. Kulemba kwa ochuluka, Woweruza Sandra Day O’Connor anagwiritsira ntchito mosamalitsa komanor anatsimikizira kuti chikondwerero cha sukulu ya malamulo m’kuphunzitsa chinali chokakamiza ndi kuti programuyo inali yosavuta chifukwa chakuti inali yosinthika, yosasintha, yosasintha, ndipo sinaikhazikitsa. Chosankha cha mafuko chinatsimikizira kuti kachitidwe kake kapangidwe kake kake, komanso “ikuganimaika: Zaka 25 tsopano, sikudzayembekezera kuti kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwaufukuwonjezereka kwa chiganikiro cha chinza m'Chiŵeru. [FF] mu Kholi. "F]

Kukulitsa Malo a Chitetezo Chofanana: Kugonana, Kugonana, ndi Kuposapo

Kuyambira m’ma 1970 kumka mtsogolo, kuperekedwa kofanana kwa chitetezo kunasumikidwa mowonjezereka pa kugaŵana mitundu osati fuko.

Tsankho Pambuyo pa Craig ndi Boren

[[FLT: 0] mu Craig v. Boren[FL:1], 190 U.S.1976, Bwalo lamilandu linagonjetsa lamulo la Oklahoma limene linakhazikitsa nyengo zosiyanasiyana za kumwa amuna ndi akazi (21 kwa amuna, 18 kwa akazi). Lingaliro lochuluka lomwe linakhazikitsidwa kuti apendedwe pakati pa kusankha kwa amuna: lamulo liyenera kutumikira “zolinga za boma” ndi kukhala“ logwirizana ndi kukwaniritsa zolinga zimenezo. Muyezo umenewu wagwiritsiridwa ntchito m'nkhani za [[FLT:] kutembenuza [[FLT:] United States. Virginia [FLT:] (1996] (196]) kwa [FL.Moralss .[5]

LGBTQ+ Ufulu ndi Chitetezo Cholingana

Khoti Lalikulu linachita ntchito yotetezera madeti a kugonana mofanana ndi Romar v. Evans (1996], imene inawononga malamulo a Colorado a kukonza malamulo otetezera mathanyula ndi a akazi okhaokha otetezera anthu. Ngakhale kuti Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito maziko oyenera opendera, linapeza kuti kukonzanso kulibe chifuno china chilichonse chovomerezeka kuposa aimus. [[FLT:]] Lawrence v. Texas (2003), Khoti lomwe linalemba malamulo oletsedwa pansi pa Kayendedwe ka Claus, koma linapezanso chitetezero chofanana. Nthaŵi yoikizidwayo inabwera mu [FLD:]. [v5] Hocroblef. [2010]

Posachedwapa, mu Bostock v. Clayton County [20]), Khoti linamasulira mutu VII wa Chikalata cha ufulu wa anthu onse kuti liletse tsankho lozikidwa pa kugonana kapena chinsinsi cha mwamuna; pamene kuli kwakuti mlanduwo unali wongonena za, mfundo inalimbikitsa mfundo yakuti kusiyanitsa kozikidwa pa kugonana ndi chizindikiro cha mwamuna kumakayikira ndipo kumafuna kulungamitsidwa kwambiri. Ziyeso zotetezera zikupitiriza m’madera onga ngati kulowa m’chipinda chogona, kutengamo mbali m’maseŵera, ndi nyumba zogonamo za anthu onse.

Kulephera Kuchita Zinthu: ADA ndi Zoposa

Makhoti ambiri anena kuti malamulo oletsa kupunduka amaikidwa pa maziko oyenera, osati kupendedwa kwambiri. Mu Doroba la Cleburne Living Center v. Cleburne Living Center . (1985), Khoti Lapamwamba linagonjetsa lamulo lomwe linafuna chilolezo chapadera cha nyumba ya anthu opunduka nzeru, koma Khoti linachita zimenezo pansi pa maziko oyenera, kupeza kuti lamulolo linali lozikidwa pa tsankho losamveka bwino. Zimenezi zinasonyeza kuti popanda kupenda kowonjezereka, Suclee protection Clauslet ingapereke mankhwala pamene tsankho libuka kapena kulakwa. Malamulo owonjezereka olemala bwino kupyola ufulu wa anthu a ku America ndi Act (1990), amene amatetezera pa maboma, ndi malo ogonako anthu ena. [Cectalf]

Mavuto a Panthaŵi Ino ndi Mafunso Osathetsedwa

Ngakhale kuti pali bungwe lokwanira la malamulo otetezera olingana, nkhani zambiri zikukayikiridwabe. Chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu cha 2023 mu Zotsatira za Fair Adgicts . Harvard [1] mokhutiritsa kwambiri] kutha kwa mafuko osazindikira ntchito ya maphunziro apamwamba, poona kuti maprogramu otero amaswa Chitetezo cha Acikomyunizimu cha Claus. Chigamulo chimenecho chimasonyeza kubwerera ku chitetezero choyenera, mtundu wofanana ndi kulongosola kulinganiza kofanana, kofanana ndi malingaliro oyambitsidwa ndi Woweruza Thomas mu Complice. Panthaŵiyi, makhoti aang'ono amalimbana ndi mafunso a kukondera, kukondera, ndi chiweruzo cha malo ozungulira zimene zimadzutsa nkhani zovuta za kusokonezedwa kwa zigawa, kusokonezeka kwa zigawa, kusokonezeka kwa bungwe la opanga mlandu.

Kusalingana Madongosolo ndi Chiphunzitso Chotetezera Chofanana

Chimodzi cha mavuto aakulu kwambiri m'lamulo lotetezera ndicho kusagwirizana pakati pa chifuno chimodzi chokhazikitsidwa mu Shashington . Davis [1] ndi kuwona kwa utundu wamakono. Kusalingana kwakukulu m'maphunziro, thanzi, ndi chiweruzo chaupandu kuli chotulukapo cha tsankho la mbiri yakale lomwe silingapezeke pa kachitidwe ka boma kadala. Otsutsa amanena kuti muyezo wa lamulo ndi “malamulo atha polankhula ndi kusalingana kwamakono. Akatswiri ena ndi ochirikiza amapempha kugwiritsira ntchito kolimba kwa chitetezo cha Clauslease kufuna kuti apeze malo othetserapo zinthu, koma Khoti lamakonoli silinasonyeze chikhumbo cha kukula koteroko.

Kusiyana kwa Makhalidwe ndi Zochititsa Tsankho

Anthu amene amasalidwa pamaziko a chikhoterero chimodzi chotetezeredwa ndi mbali zambiri . Mwachitsanzo, fuko ndi ukazi, kapena kupunduka ndi mkhalidwe wa kugonana . Nthaŵi zambiri amavutika ndi ming'alu ya malamulo yomwe ilipo. Khoti Lapamwamba silinalongosole bwino mmene kupenda chitetezo kuyenera kukhalira ndi kutchula mfundo za m'mapatuko. Makhoti ena aang'ono azindikira kuti tsankho ndi gulu laling'ono (m’magazi, akazi a ku Africa ndilo livulaza ndi lodziŵika, koma lamulolo silinathe. Pamene magulu a anthu akuyang'anira zochitika zapatuka, makhoti adzaumiriza kuti apange zipangizo zothandizira kupenda magawo.

Kuyang’ana M’tsogolo: M’tsogolomu Mudzakhala Chitetezo Chofanana

Kuyenera kwa kutetezeredwa mofanana sikumangokhalako. Mbadwo uliwonse uli ndi mpata . ndi thayo . "kumasulira tanthauzo lake polingalira za mikhalidwe ya kakhalidwe ndi kumvetsetsa makhalidwe. Zitsanzo zofotokozedwa m'nkhani ino zimavumbula chitsogozo cha kukhaliratu pamodzi, komanso njira ya kubwereranso kwawo ndi kukana. Lonjezo la 144th Amendment silinathe.

Kutsutsa kochitidwa pa zoyenera za kuvota, kuyendetsa, kuŵerengera kwa apolisi, ndi ufulu wa kutumiza transgender kudzapitirizabe kuyesa malire a chiphunzitso chotetezera chofanana. Zochitika zachilendo monga masinthidwe m'kupangidwa kwa Khoti Lalikulu, kuvomereza kwa mabungwe a ufulu wachibadwidwe, ndi lingaliro la anthu.