Malamulo a ku America amayendera mfundo yogwirizana ndi malamulo a boma, yotsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene adzamanidwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu wopanda njira zoyenerera ndi zololeka. Kuyenera kumeneku kumaikidwa ponse paŵiri paŵiri pa Malamulo achisanu ndi 14 a United States, kukonza chitetezero cha aŵiri choletsa ntchito za boma. Kusintha kwachisanu kumagwira ntchito zofunikira ku boma, pamene kuli kwakuti Kukonzanso kwa 147 kukuwonjezera chitetezo chimodzimodzicho ku ntchito zotengedwa ndi boma ndi maboma akwawo. Pamapeto pake, kumatsimikizira kuti madongosolo a chilungamo akugwira ntchito mwa kuonekera bwino, kusakondera, ndi kulemekeza ulemu wa munthu payekha. Si mfundo yosasintha koma yamphamvu ya kuteteza boma, pamene kuli koyenera kuchitika ndi malamulo ndi kumasulira kwa milandu.

Kusintha kwa Zinthu m’Nthaŵi Yake

Maziko a nzeru ndi alamulo a njira yoyenerera afutukuka kwambiri zaka mazana ambiri, kuchokera ku miyambo ya anthu wamba a ku England. Chochititsa chachikulu chotchuka kwambiri ndicho Magna Carta wa 1215, amene amalengeza mu Mutu 39 kuti palibe munthu womasuka amene angamangidwe, kuchotsedwa, kapena kuthamangitsidwa "kusiyapo ndi chigamulo chololedwa ndi anzake kapena lamulo la dzikolo. Mawuwa — "lamulo la dziko" — ndiye kholo la zimene tsopano timatcha kuti njira yoyenerera. M'kupita kwa nthaŵi, makhoti a Chingelezi ndi Nyumba ya Malamulo anayeretsa chitetezo ameneŵa, makamaka ndi Habeas Corpus Act 1679, zimene zinalimbitsa ufulu wa anthu kutsutsa kumangidwa kopanda lamulo m’khoti.

Pamene maiko a ku America analengeza ufulu, iwo ananyamula malamulo alamulo ofala ameneŵa. Malamulo oyambirira a boma nthaŵi zambiri anali ndi mawu otsimikizira kuti palibe munthu amene angachotsedwe moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu kusiyapo lamulo la dzikolo. Mtengo wachisanu, wovomerezedwa mu 1791 monga mbali ya Bill of Rights, anakhazikitsa malamulo alamulo otsimikizirika pa mlingo wa boma. Komabe, sunakhalepo kufikira pa kuikidwa kwa malamulo a kumbuyo kwa 14495 Demendment mu 1868, pambuyo pa Nkhondo yachiŵeruniŵeni, kuti njira yoyenerera ikhale kuyang'anira ulamuliro wa boma. Chigawo 1 cha Kusintha malamulo kwa 1491 chotchuka chiletseretso cha lamulo la kukana "munthu aliyense wa moyo, ufulu, ufulu, kapena chuma, popanda lamulo la lamulo lolamulira ufulu wa anthu. Makonzedwewa akhala akulamulira ufulu wa anthu mu United States ndi kuwonjezera ufulu wa anthu.

M’zaka makumi zotsatira, Bwalo Lapamwambalo pang’onopang’ono "linaphatikizapo" mbali yaikulu ya Bill of Rights potsutsana ndi maboma kudzera mu Access Procession of the 14th Amendment. Njira imeneyi, yodziŵika monga kuphatikizana, yatsimikizira kuti maboma ayenera kulemekeza ufulu wofunika wofanana ndi boma, kuphatikizapo ufulu wa kulankhula, ufulu wa kunyamula zida, ndi kutetezera ku ku kufunafuna kosalingalira ndi kugwidwa ndi njirinjiri.

Zipilala Ziŵiri: Njira Yolowera ndi Yosalimba

Kupenda koyenera kwamakono kumagaŵa lingalirolo kukhala magulu aŵiri osiyana koma ogwirizana: njira yoyenerera ndi njira yoyenerera. Kumvetsetsa kusiyanako nkofunika pozindikira mmene makhoti amagwiritsira ntchito chitetezo chofunikira m’mikhalidwe yosiyanasiyana.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Kutsatira lamulo kumasumika pa njira ndi njira boma liyenera kutsatiridwa lisanamanitse munthu wina moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Imafuna kuti anthu alandire chidziŵitso chokwanira cha zimene akuchitidwa, mwaŵi watanthauzo woti amvedwe, ndi chigamulo choperekedwa ndi bwalo lopanda tsankho. Zofunika zake zimasiyana malinga ndi nkhani yakeyo, koma mfundo yaikulu ndi yakuti chilungamo chimafunika asanachotsedwe.

Mbali zazikulu za mchitidwe wofunikira wa kukonza zimaphatikizapo:

  • Tnowce : [[FLT :1] Anthu ayenera kudziŵitsidwa za kachitidwe kolingaliridwa ndi maziko amene kazikidwapo. Chidziŵitsochi chiyenera kuŵerengeredwa bwino kuti chifikire anthu oyambukiridwa, malinga ndi mikhalidwe.
  • Kumva: Asanachotse moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, anthu ambiri ali ndi ufulu wakumva. Imeneyi ingakhale chiyeso chonse ndi mboni ndi kupenda mtanda, kapena kumvetsera kwamwayi kwamwayi, kudalira pa mtundu wa chikondwerero chimene chayambukiridwa.
  • Wopanga zosankha wosasankha: Mkulu kapena bungwe logamula nkhaniyo liyenera kukhala lopanda kukondera ndi lopanda mikangano. Malamulo amakhalidwe abwino ameneŵa ndiwo maziko a ufulu kwa woweruza kapena oyang'anira wakumva.
  • Kuyenera Kupereka Umboni: Munthu woyambukiridwayo ayenera kuloledwa kupereka umboni ndi zigomeko m’kuchinjiriza kwawo, ndi kuyang'anizana ndi umboni wotsutsa.
  • Kuyenera ku Uphungu: M'mikhalidwe yambiri — makamaka m'milandu — anthu ali ndi kuyenera kwa kuimiridwa ndi loya. M'malo ena a boma ndi oyang’anira, kuyenera kumeneku kungakhale kochepa koma kumaonedwa mowonjezereka kukhala kofunika kuti kukhale kolungama.

Khoti Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa njira yosinthira yodziŵira ntchito imene ilipo m'nkhani ya 1976 Mathews v. Elditridge . Pansi pa kuyesa kumeneku, makhoti amalinganiza zinthu zitatu: chikondwerero chaumwini choyambukiridwa ndi ntchito ya boma, upandu wa kusoŵa kolakwika m'makonzedwe omwe alipo ndi phindu la chitetezo cha productedal, ndi chikondwerero cha boma cha kuyendetsa bwino ndi chuma chapamwamba. Kulinganiza kumeneku kumachititsa njira yoyenerera ya kulumikizidwa ku mikhalidwe ya mlandu uliwonse.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera

Chinsinsi choikidwiratu ndi lingaliro lalikulu kwambiri. Chimatetezera zoyenera zina zazikulu ku kuloŵerera kwa boma popanda kusiyanitsa njira zogwiritsidwa ntchito, ngakhale ngati chidziŵitso chonse ndi kumvetsera koyenera zaperekedwa. M’mawu ena, ufulu wina uli wofunika kwambiri ku ufulu ndi chilungamo kwakuti boma silingathe kuupondereza konse, pokhapokha ngati lili ndi chilungamo chomveka.

Maziko a ntchito yofunikira yapambuyo pa zaka za zana la 20, ali m’lingaliro lakuti Accouls Claus achinjiriza osati kokha dongosolo la Century komanso malamulo otsimikizirika kuwonjezera ufulu wa anthu. Mkati mwa kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi kuchiyambi kwa 20, Bwalo Lapamwamba linagwiritsira ntchito njira yoyenerera kuswa malamulo a zachuma, monga ngati malamulo a ochulukira ndi opasatsa ndalama, m'nkhani zonga Lachner v. New York (195]). Nthaŵi imeneyi, yodziŵika monga , Lhocner [madeti] nyengo yofanana ndi yoŵerengeka [malamulo:5], inanyozedwa kwambiri kaamba ka ka kalingaliridwe ka ka ka ka ka ka kawonetseke ka ka ka ka ka ka ka kayendetsedwe ka chuma. Mkhalidwe kachiŵiri ka Chiganizo kachiŵiri cha Chiganizindikiro chaku, zomwe zango, zikutchulidwa m’Chikalata cha m’mbuyo, pokha.

Komabe, khotilo linapitiriza kugwiritsa ntchito njira yofunikira kutetezera ufulu wosadalira chuma. Chiyambire chapakati pa zaka za zana la 20, chiphunzitsocho chakhala chofunika kwambiri pa milandu yokhudza:

  • Kuyenera kwa kukwatira: [[FLT :1] Mu [[FLT :2] Lovang v. Virginia [1] (1967), Bwalo lamilandu linaletsa ukwati wa mafuko osiyanasiyana; mu [FLT: 4.]Obergefell v. Hodges [1] (2015), kuyenera kwa kukwatira kunawonjezeredwa kwa okwatirana amodzimodzi.
  • [[FLT : 0] Kuyenera kwa kulera ana: [[FLT :1] Makolo ali ndi kuyenera kwakukulu kwa kutsogolera kulera ndi maphunziro a ana awo, kodziŵika mu Pierce v. Society of Achenje (1925]) ndi [FLT :4] Wicon j. Yoder
  • Kuyenera kwa kukhala ndi malo achinsinsi ndi kudzilamulira kwa thupi: [GULAF]--.Connecticut (65]) adazindikira kuyenera kwa okwatirana kugwiritsira ntchito njira zoletsera; [[FLT:] Roe v. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [107] [77]] [77]]) anawonjezera kulingalira kwa mkazi kuyenera kwa kusankha kutaya mimba — ngakhale kuti Dobs v. Jackson'Akatetions Health Organization [[FLT:] [2] [FL:] [FL:8]
  • kudzilamulira kwaumwini ndi khalidwe la kugonana: [[FLT :1] Khoti mu Lawrence v. Texas (2003]) adagwetsa malamulo a sodoma monga kuswa njira yoyenerera, kutsimikizira kuyenera kwa kudziloŵetsa m’makhalidwe a kugonana aumwini, ogwirizana ndi chisembwere.

Otsutsa amanena kuti lamulolo limapempha oweruza kuŵerenga malamulo awo m’Bungwe Lolamulira, pamene kuli kwakuti ochirikiza amaumirira kuti atetezere ufulu wa munthu aliyense kwa ochenjerera.

Kutsatira Malamulo

Malamulo a kachitidwe ka zinthu ndi kabwino kokhala ndi ntchito pafupifupi m'mbali iliyonse ya lamulo kumene boma limachitapo kanthu kukhudza zofuna za munthu. Pano pali mmene chitetezo chimenechi chimagwirira ntchito m’madera aakulu.

Chilamulo cha Chigawenga

Malamulo oyenerera a ntchito zauchigaŵenga ngolimba kwambiri m'nkhani za upandu chifukwa chakuti mitengoyo ndi yaikulu kwambiri: ufulu wa munthu uli pangozi. Malamulo amafuna kuti boma litsimikizire mbali iliyonse ya mlandu mosakayikitsa, kuti oimbidwa mlandu ali ndi ufulu wa mwamsanga ndi wa anthu onse ndi ajuli opanda tsankho, ndi kuti ali ndi ufulu wothandiza. Nkhani yapadera [[FLT: 0] [Gideon v. Wainright [1] (63]) imafuna kuti anene kuti oimba mlandu wa apereke mlandu kwa oimba mlandu wosasankha, ndi kuti apereke mlanduwo ayang'ane mlanduwo pamaso pa mlandu uliwonse, ndipo pambuyo pake awonjezere mlanduwo ku mlandu uliwonse. [FLD:] [FF:]

Ndiponso, njira yoyenerera imalamulira njira yofunsira, imene imathetsa milandu yambiri ya upandu. Khotilo lanena kuti chivomerezo cha liwongo chiyenera kuloŵetsedwa mwaufulu ndi mwanzeru, ndi kuti oimbidwa mlandu ayenera kudziŵa zotulukapo zenizeni za kuchonderera kwawo. Lamulo la chilungamo limaletsanso kugwiritsira ntchito umboni wina wopezedwa mosemphana ndi njira yoyenerera, monga ngati kuulula kokakamiza ndi mphamvu yakuthupi kapena kutsendereza kwa maganizo.

Chilamulo cha Chiŵeniŵeni

Pankhani za boma, njira yoyenerera imafunikira kuti anthu alandire chidziŵitso ndi mwaŵi wakumva boma lisanachotse katundu kapena chikondwerero chachikulu. Izi zimagwira ntchito mokulira: asanachotse mapindu a ubwino, kuchotsa woyendetsa galimoto pa nyumba, kapena kuchotsa laisensi ya woyendetsa galimoto, dziŵitsa ndi mtundu wina wa kumvetsera. Komabe, nthaŵi yeniyeni ndi mkhalidwe wa kumvetsera zingasiyane. M’zochitika zina, kumvetsera kwapasadakhale kuyenera; m'makalata, kumvetsera ndi zitetezero zokwanira. Maws. Eldridge . [FLT] adapanga mayeso oyeza m'nkhani ya kusoŵa kwa kusoŵa kwa chitetezo, kumene khoti loonekera bwino lomwe linafunikira kumvetsera kwa nthaŵi yaitali.

Mbali ina yofunika ndiyo kudzipereka kwa anthu okhala ndi matenda a maganizo. Khoti Lapamwamba lanena kuti njira yoyenerera imafunikira umboni wowonekera bwino ndi wokhutiritsa wa upandu kapena kupunduka kwa imfa munthu asanatsekerezedwe mwadala. Muyezo umenewu, umatengedwa mu Addington v. Texas . [FLT:] [1997]), umasonyeza chiwonjezeko chaufulu pamtengo ndipo utsimikizira kuti zolakwa sizingachotsedwe molakwika munthu wina ufulu wake.

Chilamulo Choyang’anira

Mabungwe a boma amapanga mphamvu yaikulu pa anthu mwa zochita zaudindo, kukhazikitsa zosankha, ndi kupindula. Pamafunika kuti mabungwe ameneŵa atsatire njira zolungama — kuphatikizapo chidziŵitso, mwaŵi wopereka umboni, ndi chigamulo cholingaliridwa ndi woimira anthu opanda tsankho. Olamulira a Procedure Active Act (APA) amakhazikitsa zambiri za zofunika zimenezi za mabungwe a boma, koma njira zoyenerera za malamulo zimayala pansi pomwe ngakhale APA satha kupita. Mwachitsanzo, pochotsa anthu, anthu ali ndi ufulu womvera pamaso pa woweruza wosamuka, kuyenera kupatsidwa uphungu (kumalipiro awo okha), ndi mpata wosonyeza umboni wosangalatsa kapena wothandiza. M’chivomereka chachi. [FLD] RFFFFF: [2001], Supremest [2001], anagamula mlandu wovomerezetutsa mlandu wa chiwonetso cha chiwonetso cha chitsutso cha chitsutso cha chitsutso pakati pa chitsutso cha nkhondo, ndi chigamuke chikane chika cha chikane chika cha chikane chika cha chika cha chika cha chika cha chika cha chika cha

Maphunziro

Ophunzira m'masukulu a anthu onse ali ndi zinthu zina zimene amakonda pamaphunziro awo ndi ufulu wawo. Chifukwa chake, Appersion ya 14th Accessistion’s Acception Claus imagwira ntchito ku ntchito za sukulu zolangiza zimene zimatsogolera kuchotsa kapena kuthamangitsa. Gos v. Lopez[FLLD] [1979], Khoti Lapamwamba linagamula kuti wophunzira amene akuyang'anizana ndi kuchotsedwa masiku khumi ayenera kupatsidwa chidziŵitso cha mlanduwo kapena kulembedwa cha mlanduwo ndi mpata wopereka kumbali yawo ya nkhaniyo, makamaka njira yoyenerera yomvera. Chifukwa cha kuchotsedwa kwa nthaŵi yaitali kapena zosankha zapadera za maphunziro, njira zina zazikulu kwambiri zikufunika. Anthu a pa za maphunziro (IA) Act Actsccurity (EA) yotchuka kwambiri — kuphatikizaponso njira ya kulongosola bwino lakunja la ophunzira — maphunziro asanayambe kapena ntchito yapadera — mautumiki a ophunzira.

Chizindikiro cha Milandu Yapansi Yochepetsa Kuyenera kwa Malamulo

Milandu ingapo ya khoti Lapamwamba yakhudza kwambiri tanthauzo ndi kukula kwa njira yochitira zinthu.

Nkhani ndi Mikangano ya M’tsogolo

Ntchito yoyenerera ikupitiriza kukhala pa maziko a nkhani zalamulo ndi zachikhalidwe. Kutsutsana kwina kwakukulu kwamakono kumayendera pa kutetezeredwa koyenerera kwa chitetezo , chiphunzitso chimene chimatetezera akuluakulu a boma ku thayo la boma pokhapo ngati iwo aswa bwino lomwe zoyenera za malamulo kapena za malamulo. Otsutsa amanena kuti kuyenerera kwa kutetezera thupi kumachepetsa njira yoyenerera mwa kupangitsa kukhala kovuta kwa anthu kupeza njira zowonjezekera zoswera lamulo, makamaka m’nkhani zotsutsana ndi apolisi. Khoti Lapamwamba lasonyeza kufunitsitsa kuyeretsa chiphunzitsocho koma silinachithetsa.

Amachita moyenerera m'nyengo ya manambala [1] Adzutsa mafunso atsopano onena za chidziŵitso ndi kumva m'nyengo ya kupanga malamulo. Mwachitsanzo, madongosolo ongopanga zinthu amene amakana mapindu, chinyengo chothekera, kapena ndalama za belo zingagwire ntchito popanda njira zoonekera kapena mipata yatanthauzo kwa anthu oyambukiridwa kuti apikisane ndi zotsatira. Makhoti akulimbana ndi kaya madongosolowo akukwaniritsa miyezo yoyenerera ya malamulo, makamaka pamene chidziŵitso kapena malamulo a pansi pampambo wa ndalama za proprietary kapena projective.

Mliri wa Covid-19 unayesedwa m’njira zosayerekezereka. Malamulo a zaumoyo, ndi makhoti akutali, zonsezo zinadzutsa mafunso a kulinganizika pakati pa kuyenera kwa productive ndi kufunika kwa kuchitapo kanthu mofulumira kwa boma. Khoti Lapamwamba m'maseti angapo a ngozi linasonyeza kuti kuletsa kuchotsa katundu sikungachotse ufulu wa eni nyumba wa kupeza katundu wawo, kutchula njira yoyenerera.

Mwinamwake malo ophulika kwambiri ndiwo mtsogolo mwa [[FLT: 0] ntchito yofunika yodzitetezera pambuyo pa Madobs [. Mwa kubwezera kuchotsa mimba ku maboma, Bwalo lamilandu lokhala ndi zizindikiro kuti si ufulu wonse umene poyamba unalingaliridwa kukhala wofunika kwambiri ungakhalebe wotetezedwa. Zoweruza zina zakhala zikuitana kaamba ka kupendanso njira zina zoyenerera, kuphatikizapo awo otetezera kuyenera kwa kukwatira ndi kugwiritsira ntchito kuletsa kuletsa mimba. Zaka zikubwerazo zidzaona kuti ufulu wosatchulidwa bwino sukhalabe wopendedwa pansi pa "chiyambi ndi mwambo" woyesedwa mu [FL:] [FF:] Dokt] Mado.

Kumaliza

Ntchito yotsatira lamulo la ku America idakali maziko a lamulo, kutetezera anthu ku ntchito yodziimira paokha ya boma ndi kutsimikizira kuti ulamuliro wa boma ukugwiritsidwa ntchito bwino. Kaya mwa chitetezo chachikhalidwe cha anthu ndi kumvetsera kapena chitetezo chapamwamba cha ufulu wofunika kwambiri, Aphunzitsi, akatswiri a za malamulo, ndi nzika zomwe zili ndi ntchito yofunika kwambiri poteteza malamulo, koma kuti atsimikizire kuti mfundoyi ndi yogwirizana ndi malamulowo. Mfundoyi yakhala yogwirizana kwambiri ndi malamulo a Chingelezi a m’zaka za m’ma 500 mpaka kufika pa mavuto a nzeru zopeka ndi zaumoyo. Kwa aphunzitsi, ophunzira, akatswiri a za malamulo, ndi anthu omwe ali ndi anthu omwe ali ndi anthu, njira yomvetsa zinthu yofunika kwambiri, ndi yofunika kuyamikira zitsimikiziro za malamulowo, koma kuwateteza.