M’zaka zaposachedwapa, chiphunzitso cha ufulu wadziko wodzilamulira chinayamba monga mfundo yobwerezabwereza m'lamulo la malamulo a U.S. Icho chikuchititsa makhoti kupendanso malire pakati pa uchifumu wa boma ndi ufulu wa munthu aliyense. Lamulo lalamulo limeneli limaletsa mbali zachinsinsi kusumira boma m'bwalo la boma popanda chilolezo cha boma. Komabe mapangano enieni a mtengowo asintha mwa zosankha zamakono, kusonyeza zonse ziŵiri zowonjezera ndi zogwirizana pakati pa malamulo a judiary. Kumvetsetsa zizoloŵezi zachiweruzo zaposachedwapa zimenezi nkofunika kwa a ligigator, opanga malamulo, ndi aliyense wotsatira mfundo zosiyanasiyana za ulamuliro wa boma, boma, ufulu, ndi kuŵerengera mlandu kwa lamulo.

Maziko a Mbiri Yake a Kusagwirizana kwa Boma Lolamulira

Chiphunzitso chamakono cha ufulu wodzilamulira chimatsatira magwero ake ku lamulo la Chingelezi, limene linafotokoza kuti mfumu siingaikidwe mlandu popanda chilolezo chake. Pambuyo pa Kusintha kwa America, maboma opangidwa chatsopano anatengera pulinsipulo limeneli, koma Malamulo a U.S. poyamba anasiya kuvomerezedwa kwake kwa boma. Mpambo wa 11 ndi wovomerezedwa mu 1795, unavumbula kuti mphamvu yachiweruzo ya United States siingaperekedwe ku masuti "ake kapena kuperekedwa ndi nzika za United States ndi nzika za Boma lina, kapena ndi nzika za Dziko lina lililonse la Dziko lachilendo. Mawuwa anawoneka ngati kuti alembedwa mochepera ku ulamuliro wamitundu yosiyanasiyana, koma Khoti Lapamwambalo silinakula mofulumira.

M'nkhani zapanthaŵi yachinsinsi monga ngati Hans v. Louisiana (1890]), Khotilo linavomereza kuti Prommendment ya 11 imapereka lamulo lamphamvu yodzitetezera ya boma imene imayenderana ndi boma lake ndi nzika zake, ngakhale ngati suti yazikidwa pa lamulo la boma. Chigamulo chimenecho chinakhazikitsa malo a zaka zoposa zana limodzi za jurisprudeficing kuyesa kufotokoza malire olondola a chitetezo. Pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 20, Bwalo la Rehnst linakhala ndi chotetezeranso chotetezera choyenera chalamulo cholimba, kuletsa mphamvu za bungwe la malamulo otetezera pansi pa malamulo ena. Mkhalidwe imeneyi ndi yosamveka yomvetsa bwino malo achiweruzo, kumene Khoti lomanzere lakumapitirizabe kulinganiza ufulu.

Mpunje Wachisanu ndi Chimodzi ndi Kumasulira Kwake Kwamakono

Demendment ya khumi ndi limodzi idakalibe maziko a malemba a kutetezera ulamuliro wa boma, koma kumasulira kwake kunasintha kwambiri. Mu Alden v. Maine (1999), Khoti Lapamwamba linavomereza kuti chitetezero chalamulo chifutukuke ku boma, osati kokha chitetezero cha boma, kulingalira kuti malamulo a boma amasunga ulemu wachibadwa ndi ufulu. Zosankha zonga Federal Maritime Commission v. South Caroline State Authority [[FLT:] (2002]) Chigwirizano chowonjezereka ku milandu pamaso pa mabungwe a boma. Malamulo ameneŵa analimbitsa maganizo aakulu a maboma oteteza zinthu za boma kuchokera ku mitundu yambiri ya malamulo a boma.

Komabe, Khoti lakhazikitsanso kusiyana kwakukulu. Maboma angavomereze kuvomereza, ndipo Congress angalole masuti otetezera ogwirizana ndi mphamvu ya kuletsa kuletsa kuletsa lamulo la boma pochita ntchito yotetezera Chigawo 5 cha 14neth Amendment. Kuwonjezerapo, chiphunzitso cha Expate Young (1908]) imalola masuti olimbana ndi akuluakulu a boma oyembekezera kukhazikitsa ufulu wa lamulo, nkhoswe yofunika kwambiri yoletsa kutetezedwa kusakhala chitetezero chathunthu cha ku mankhwala alamulo. Zosankha zaposachedwapa zayesa zimenezi, kupanga mabwalo atsopano ankhondo kaamba ka kufutukuka kapena kuchepetsa.

Zolinga Zochepetsa Kugawana Kwa Mfumu: Milandu Yaikulu Yaposachedwapa

Malamulo angapo osintha zinthu ayamba kuchepetsa mphamvu ya boma yodzilamulira, makamaka pamene ufulu wa boma kapena chitetezo chalamulo zili pangozi. zosankha zimenezi zimasonyeza kufunitsitsa kukakamiza ulamuliro wa boma ngakhale pa maboma achifumu.

Department of Criminal Justice (2017)

Mu Lane v. Dipatimenti ya Texas of Criminal Justice, Bwalo Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti chitetezo cha boma sichimaletsa kutsutsana kwake pansi pa Family ndi Medical Let Act (FMLA) pamene wantchitoyo asankhana zachimuna ndi akazi. Khoti losiyanitsa pakati pa FMLA's s’butle imasiya makonzedwe (amene sanali kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa Chigawo 5) ndi makonzedwe ake a banja (amene anali). Chigamulocho chinafotokoza kuti pamene Congress Congressworce motsimikizirika chitetezeretso cha mwamuna ndi mkazi pa Kusintha kwa khumi ndi Ane, liyenera kugonjera ku chivoti. Chiŵeretso chochepetsetsa ku ku ku kuletsa lamulo la boma lotsutsa lamulo la boma la United States.

Fulton ndi mzinda wa Philadelphia (2021)

Mu Fulton v. Mzinda wa Philadelphia [1], khoti linalankhula za kuswa malamulo otetezera ufulu wa kudziimira ndi ufulu wa kudziimira, ngakhale kuti chigamulo chomaliza chinasintha pa maziko a malamulo. Mlandu unabuka pamene Philadelphia anathetsa pangano lochirikiza ntchito yothandiza anthu achikatolika a Mautumiki chifukwa chakuti bungwelo linakana kukhazikitsa okwatirana auchiŵalo amodzi ogonana ndi kuikidwa. Pamene kuli kwakuti mzindawo unatsutsa kuti zochita zake zinali zosatenga mbali ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri zimagwira ntchito, Khoti linapeza kuti silinali. Mokulira, Khoti silinapereke chitetezero chachikulu kaamba ka kuvomereza zosankha zake; m’malo mwake, linkafuna kuti mzindawongololeza mchitidwe uliwonse wachipembedzo pansi pa muyezo. Zimenezi zinalimbikitsa lamulo loletsa ufululo loletsa ufuluwo kuletsa mabizinesi, makamaka pansi pa malamulo a bungwe loyamba.

Allen Cooper (2020)

Allen v. Cooper anapereka chopinga kwa eni ake ofunsira ofunafuna kusutidwa. Khoti Lapamwamba likugwirizana kuti Couble Remedy Clarification Act ya 1990 sinalonze kuletsa kwalamulo la boma chifukwa chakuti Congress inalephera kutchula njira ya kutsutsa boma la boma losagwirizana ndi malamulo. Khoti linagogomezera kuti kuti kuti kuti kuchotsa malamulo kuyenera, Congress Congress ayenera kulongosola bwino cholinga chake ndi kuchita zinthu pansi pa lamulo loyenerera. Chigamulochi sichinaletse kulephera kukwaniritsa ntchito ya chuma cha boma chogwirizana ndi maboma, chikusonyeza kufunika kwa kukonza ndi zopezedwa zenizeni pamene bungwe la malamulo la malamulo osochezetsa.

Department of Public Safety (2022)

Mu Troresv . Department of Public Safety . Khotilo linalingalira unansi pakati pa chitetezero cha ufulu ndi mphamvu ya boma ya nkhondo. Mlandu unabuka pansi pa ntchito ya Unduna ndi Rehorsed Respectment Rights Act (USTERRA), imene imatetezera ufulu wa anthu wamba wa ntchito zausilikali wa ziŵalo zankhondo. Khotilo linaona kuti pamene boma la boma lifuna kupititsa patsogolo ulamuliro wake walamulo pa chitetezo cha dziko, lingaike mabomawo kugwirizana ndi malamulo awo popanda chivomerezo. Chigamulo cha 5-4 chinagogomezera kuti kapangidwe ka malamulo ka Konsiti ka Konsiti ka lamulo ka lamulo kakulola kukhazikitsa malamulo a boma pamene likuchita zinthu zosokoneza mphamvu zankhondo. Kulamulira kumeneku kuwonjezera mphamvu ya boma la boma lachitete lachitete pansi pa malamulo ena, lamulo lotchuka lokhudza malamulo alamulo.

Zikhoterero Zofutukula Kudziloŵetsamo: Kulimbana ndi Zinthu Koipa

Despite these limitations, other recent decisions have reinforced sovereign immunity, especially in contexts where Congress lacks clear evidence of constitutional violations or where the state's consent is absent.

Kukula kwa Zinthu Zofunika Kwambiri

Allen v. Cooper[FLT :1] Si kupeputsa kokha kochepetsedwa komanso kutsimikizira lingaliro lakuchinjirizidwa kwa boma. Mwakufuna kuti Nyumba za Malamulo zilembe njira yotsutsira ndi mankhwala ogwirizana ndi operekera, Khoti linakupangitsa kukhala kovuta kutetezera m'chizindikiro, malo ovomerezeka, ndi milandu yachilolezo. Zosankha za khoti zochepera zagwiritsira ntchito kalingaliridwe kameneka, kaŵirikaŵiri kalamulo logwirizana ndi masuti a IP ngakhale pamene achita ntchito zamalonda.

Kugwirizana m’Khoti la Boma ndi Nkhani Zogwirizana

Milandu yaposachedwapa yalimbananso ndi chimene chimapanga chotetezera thupi. Makhoti ena anena kuti mkhalidwe wa Regents [1] monga kuchotsa mlandu ku khoti la boma kapena kufunafuna chithandizo . Siingathe kuletsa kuteteza zinthu popanda kuvomerezana ndi boma. M'makhoti a Lapides . Bungwe la Regents [1] [2004], Khoti linapeza kuti chitetezero cha boma mwa kuchotsa dala mlandu wokhudza boma ndi mfundo za boma, koma mafotokozedwe ogwirizana. Nthaŵi zina makhoti apamwamba agwiritsira ntchito Lapide , kusunga chitetezo chifukwa chakuti zinaoneka ngati zikugonjera.

Chiyambukiro cha [[FLT: 0] Pennern Pippine Co. v. New Jersey (201)

Penn Easter piline Co. v. New Jersey inayang'anira mphamvu ya boma yogawira ulamuliro wapamwamba kwa makampani a anthu. Khoti linatsutsa kuti pamene boma la boma libweretsa chitsutso, likhoza kukhala ndi ufulu wake weniweni ngakhale ngati lichita zimenezi mwa munthu mmodzi. Kuchotsa kumeneku kutsutsa zoti maboma atetezedwe ndi masutu operekedwa ndi nthumwi za boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti potsirizira pake linalola kampani ya paipiyo kupitiriza, inachita zimenezo mwa kugwetsa kachitidwe kake mu ulamuliro wa boma mmalo mwa kuletsa lamulo la boma. Njira imeneyi imavomereza kuti ulamuliro wa chitetezo umakhala wosalakwika popanda mphamvu ya boma mwachindunji.

Ntchito ya Malamulo Olamulira: Waiver ndi Kudula Mafano

Chofunika kwambiri m'zochitika zachiweruzo chaposachedwapa ndicho kugwirizanitsa pakati pa lamulo la boma lotetezera ufulu wa munthu ndi la boma. Nyumba za malamulo zingapereke chitetezo ngati (1) chisonyeze cholinga chenicheni cha kuchita zimenezo ndi (2) kugwiritsa ntchito lamulo lovomerezeka, kaŵirikaŵiri Chigawo 5 cha Malamulo a 14. Zosankha zaposachedwapa zachepetsa zofunika za kuletsa, kukakamiza kuti Nyumba za Malamulo zidziŵitse khalidwe lofala la boma lopanda lamulo ndi kukonzanso njira zake zothetsera vutolo.

Kupereka lamulo la lamulo ndi njira ina: mawu angavomereze dala mwa kulandira ndalama za boma kapena kuchita ntchito zimene Nyumba za Ufumu zimachita pa kulephera. Komabe, makhoti afufuza molunjika zotero kuti aone bwino. College Savings Bank v. Florida Preference Secondary Education Board [[FLT:] [1999]), khotilo linakhulupirira kuti kutengamo kwa boma m'malonda a m'mayiko sikungawonongere dala. Posachedwapa, khoti lafuna kuti chivomezo chilichonse cha kupeputsa ndi kuvomereza kwa lamulo lachisawawa.

Ufulu wa Malamulo Kulimbana ndi Kusagwirizana kwa Mfumu

Mwinamwake malo oimbidwa mlandu kwambiri a kuchepetsako amaphatikizapo kuwombana pakati pa ufulu walamulo ndi chikopa cha kudzilamulira. Chiphunzitso cha [[FLT:] Ex see Young chimalola masutu kuyang'anira boma kaamba ka kuyembekezera mpumulo wa kusudzulidwa, koma ukulu wake wayesedwa. M'chigawo cha Wodwala Wachikazi ndi . Jackson [[FLT:] [2] [20], Khoti Lapamwamba lilingalira ngati oweruza a bwalo lamilandu, alemberero, ndi nzika zachinsinsi zingasulidwe pansi pa [FLT:] Mbali yaikulu ya kutsutsa lamulo la kuchotsa mimba. Khotilo linatsutsa ufulu womangira ufulu wolimbana ndi oweruza chifukwa chakuti iwo analoledwa ndi oweruza, koma oweruza ake otsutsa. Pamene akuluakulu a bomawo analola kuweruza ochenjerawo kutsutsa ufulu waukulu.

Mofananamo, mu [[FLT: 0] kusamala ndi kukonzanso za ndende, makhoti aang'ono afikira zotulukapo zosiyana. Ena alola chipumulo chokulira pansi pa mbali ya Young kuchiritsa kuswa malamulo a malamulo, pamene kuli kwakuti ena achepetsa kwa maofesala otsatizana. Chotulukapo ndicho ntchito yotsalira ya juripruudiation yomwe ikufuna kuchonderera ndi njira yapamwamba.

Kufufuza kwa Odya Nsalu ndi Ogula

Zigamulo zimenezi zimapereka zotsatirapo zabwino kwambiri.

  • [[FLT: 0] Kuzindikiritsa woimbidwa mlandu woyenerera: Kuchotsa woyang'anira boma m’kukhoza kwake kwalamulo kaamba ka chopereka choyembekezeredwa pansi pa Ex pate Young [[[FLT: 3] angapeŵe kutetezedwa, koma kusumira boma lenilenilo sikumatero.
  • Chinenero cha Analyze cha boma: Ngati chinenerocho chibuka pansi pa lamulo la boma, pendani ngati Congress yasonyeza bwino lomwe cholinga cha kuchinjiriza kuwonongeka ndi kaya inachita pansi pa Chigawo 5 kapena ulamuliro wina wodalirika.
  • Kulingalira chivomerezo ndi chiwombano: [1] Kufunafuna otsutsa osonyeza lamulo la boma kapena kulandira ndalama za boma. Ngakhale pamenepo, khalani okonzekera kumasulira kopapatiza kwa chiweruzo.
  • Chitsanzo chachikazi chosintha: ndi Bwalo Lapamwamba logaŵikana, lamulo la kudzitetezera kwa munthu limakhala madzi. Mapangano aposachedwapa angasunthenso, chotero ochiritsa ayenera kutumiza mphatso ya certiorari ndi milandu yotsala.

Maboma, kuzindikira malire a chitetezo nkofunika mofanana. Kuchinjiriza ku mlandu kungafunikire kusanthula mosamalitsa kuti kaya boma lingasunge chitetezo popanda ngozi ya kuchiwononga mwa kuwonekera. Maboma ena akhazikitsa malamulo amene amavomereza magulu ena a suti pamene akusunga chitetezo kwa ena. Kukhalabe ndi zizoloŵezi zachiweruzo kumathandizira maboma kupeŵa maupandu owonongetsa ndalama.

Mmene Zinthu Zidzakhalire Mtsogolo: Zinthu Zili M’tsogolo

Chikalata cha lamulo la ufulu wa kudziimira paokha chimadalira pa mfundo zingapo: Kupangidwa kwa Khoti Lalikulu, kufunitsitsa kwa Congress kumanga zolembedwa zolimba kuti adzimenyetse, ndi mitundu ya milandu imene imafika ku khoti lalikulu. M'nthaŵi ya 2023, khotilo linamva Kukana kwa Education . Brown [1], mlandu wotsutsa kudalirika kwa pangano limene linakhazikitsa chithandizo pa boma popanda chigamulo chake chomveka. Mlandulowo ungamvetse malire a chivomerezo cha boma.

Komanso, nkhani zokhudza kuteteza ufulu pa zachuma, kulephera kwa boma, kuteteza malo okhala, ndi chuma cha anthu zikupitirizabe kusokoneza. Kudalira kwambiri kwa Khoti pa mfundo za m'malemba ndi kuyambika kwa Baibulo kungavomereze lingaliro lochepa la chitetezo, monga momwe akatswiri ena omasulira Baibulo ananenera kuti Kukonzanso kwachisanu ndi chimodzi sikunalinganiziridwe kuletsa masuti pansi pa lamulo la boma. Komanso, ena amatsutsa kuti kuteteza ufulu wa munthu ndi khalidwe losungidwa ndi lamulo.

Kumaliza

Ziyeso zachiweruzo zaposachedwapa pofutukula kapena kuchepetsa kutetezera kwa boma kwa chisungiko zadziko zikuvumbula mbali yotsutsana kwambiri ndi lamulo la malamulo. Kuchokera ku Lane [1] ndi Filton] [ kwa [FLT]] [[FLT]] Allen[[5] ndi Troress , Khoti Lalime latumiza zizindikiro zosiyanasiyana, nthaŵi zina zopapatiza kutetezera ufulu wa boma ndi nthaŵi zina kuti litetezere ufulu wa dziko. Chipamba chake chimadalira pa mkhalidwe weniweni wa kaŵiri, mkhalidwe wa malamulo a bungwe la United States, ndi kulongosola njira yothandiza kuweruza za oweruza.

Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, fufuzani [[FLT: 0] Cornell Information Institute kupenda kwa chitetezero cha boma cha kudzilamulira , tsamba la Justia ya Troress v. Texas Department of Public Safety, ndi [[FLT:] khoti la [FLT]] Supme mu Allen v. Cooper[FLT:][FLT]]