Kunzwisisa Kubatana kwaChangamire weHurumende Munhema Dzokusabereka Dzavose

Hurumende inodzivirira Hurumende dzidziso yehwaro yapamutemo inodzivirira kukwidzwa mumatare ehurumende kana kuti ehurumende pasina kubvumira. Yakavakirwa muDemendment yechi11 yeU.S. Constitution, uku kudzivirira kudzivirira kudzorwa nedzikamo yehurumende. Zvisinei, kushandiswa kwayo kuruzhinji kunogovera mabasa anokosha akadai semvura, magetsi, gasi romusikirwo, uye transfermetics , syndrometics systems trains in elective finigment. Apo system inovatoid inovas, inoshanda, kana kuti inodzorwa zvikuru nehurumende, mubvunzo wokuti mupultiff anogona kuunza chirango cherango kana kuti dziviriro yapamutemo inoshanda uye kana kusiripo. Nyaya inogovera kunzvera kuyera mugariro wapamutemo wehurumende.

Mavambo uye Ukuru hwaChangamire weHurumende

Demende yeA111, yakagamuchirwa muna 1795, inopa kuti “Simba reDare Rinotonga reUnited States harisati richizorangarirwa kuva rinotambanudzira kusuturo ipi neipi mumutemo kana kuti kururamisira, rakatanga kana kuti rinotongwa mukurwisana neimwe yeUnited States neVanizeki veNyika imwe, kana kuti neVagarications kana kuti neMitemo yeHurumende ipi neipi.” Nemhaka yeSangano reChikatamende yakakwirira yakadudzira iyi zvakafara, ichiva nemamiriro ezvinhu okudzivisa kudzivirirwa nemapoka ehurumende anoumbirwa nedare rehurumende, pasinei zvapo nokuti ivagari vemo venyika inotongwa nehurumende. Iyi inotambanurira kusangano rehurumende kana kuti zvikwata zvehurumende zvehurumende. Iyi inhau inotoko inodzorwa nenhau inodzorwa.[1] Dzidziso haisati iri yakakwana, sezvo Congressson ingaita mugariro wokudzivisa kudzivirirwa mumigariro yakati yavose. Mudare rokusarira mamiriro ezvinhu avose, kana kuti mamiriro ezvinhu adzoro yenhau inoko.

Chisakiso chokudzivisa rwisano yehurumende chinovakirwa munheyo dzehurumende nehurumende. Nyika dzinochengeta maruramiro okudzora nhau dzadzo dzimene pasina kudzongonyedzwa kusina kufanira kubva kumatare ehurumende kana kuti matare avanhu voga. Kubvumira sututi kupesana nehurumende pasina kubvumira kwadzo kungagona kupinza mungozi mari yavose ndokudzongonyedza mabasa ehurumende. Zvisinei, iyi dziviriro inogona kuparira mhingani kuvanhu vanokuvadza nedzinovharwa nehurumende, dzakadai semuzvinoitika zvesimba rinopfuurira, migove yemvura yakashatiswa, kana kuti midziyo yegasi isina ngozi. Kunzwisisa migadziro yesimba roudzoro yapamutemo kunokosha kunokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anobatanidzwa musimba revoruzhinji.

Kushanda Kwavose uye Kuongorora Zvinzvimbo Zvomunyika

Hadzisi dzose dzinoshandiswa navanhu vose dzinobatwa zvakaenzana pasi pedziviriro inodzorwa nehurumende. Chinopesana chikuru chiri mukuti chishandiso i “simba rehurumende” kana kuti chiteshi chapachivande chinodzorwa nehurumende. Matare anoshandisa kuedza kwakawanda kuti aone kana chishandiso chinokwanisa kudzivirira. Zvisakiso zvinorangarirwa kuva zvinosanganisira: mwero wokudzora kwehurumende panzvimbo yacho, chinangwa chenzvimbo (hurumende. propiter. proritary), factory yehurumende, mari yesangano, mari yesangano uye kuzvitonga kwemari, uye kana rutongeso panzvimbo yacho rungabhadharwa kubva kumari yehurumende. Hurumende inodzorwa sekambani yemvura kana kuti sesangano remagetsi rinobatira pamwe chete nenyama yemasero kunganzi hazvisipotengwi. Munei, kunze kwezvipo kana kuiswa mumitengo yemari, asi inodzoro yehurumende inodzorwa paruzhinji isati inoshanda nokuda kwehurumende yehurumende yavose.

Zvinhu Zviduku Zvehurumende: Kuzvidzora Chaiko

Apo chishandiso chinenge chiri chehurumende zvakananga uye chinoshandiswa nehurumende kana kuti chimwe chezvikamu zvayo zvezvamatongerwe enyika, kudzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende kunowanzovharwa mudare rehurumende. Somuenzaniso, North Carolina Supreme Court yakataura kuti State Ports Authority yakadzivirirwa nemhaka yokuti mabasa ayo ndeehurumende. Nenzira yakafanana, Tennessee Valley Valley Authority (VA) isangano rehurumende rinofarikanya kudzivirirwa sechipotezo chehurumende, kunyange zvazvo hurumende inodzivisa kuva norusununguko rwavanhu rwakaparadzana. Pamwero mukuru mukuru wehurumende, gadziriro dzemvura dzavose, makambani emagetsi, uye maruwa enzvimbo emo anobatwa sezvomboorwa nehurumende. Kunyange zvazvo dare ringangova rinowanika, magetsi anoitirwa vanhu vasiri vatengi kana vatengi vakawana chisakiso chavose.

Kushandiswa Kwevanhu Vasiri Vavo Vari Kudzorwa Nehurumende

Masangano akasiana - siana emitemo anoshanda mumitengo yePUC, kunyange zvazvo akadzorwa zvikuru nehurumende. Chiratidzo hachichinji sangano rapachivande muruoko rwehurumende. Naizvozvo, vanhu vangaisa sututiswo yavagari vemo nokuda kwokuvadziko, kuputswa kwemibatanidzwa yemibatanidzwa yetsika yetsika. Zvisinei, kugadzirwa kwedziviriro yapamutemo seyapamutemo yePUCs yezviito zvakati. Chiratidzo hachichinji pamutemo muruoko rwehurumende muruoko rwehurumende. Chinongokoshairira kutsaura pakati pechidzivisiso chapamutemo (icho chimene chinodzivirira) kana kuti kudzorwa kwemitemo yapachivanda. Chinototi chakagadzirwa hachina kugadzirirwa pamitemo yemitemo yemitemo yapamutemo. Chiratichidzo chehurumende hachisi chitakuva muganhu. Chinotoko kudzivirira kana kuti chidzorwa chipfuure. Chiteshidzodzodzo chapagaro chemitemo chipfuure. Chiteshi chakava chinoitwa pamusoro pemitemo chiteshidzo chemitemo chinenge chinenge chateshinwa. Chiteshidzo

Kuparadzaniswa Kuna Changamire weHurumende Mumhosva Dzokushaya Mubereko

Pasinei zvapo nedziviriro huru yokudzivisa zvirwere kwamasimba ose, majekiseni anoverengeka akasanogadzwa anobvumira vapfumi kukwidza zvinhu zvinoshandiswa munyika mumigariro yakati. Kunzwisisa izvi kunokosha nokuda kwamagweta anotsvaka kuita kuti masangano avanhu azvidavirire.

Kuchera Kwakaitwa Nehurumende

Mitezo ingabvuma nokuzvidira kupiwa mutemo unodzivisa kuzvidzivirira pamunhu. Nyika dzakawanda dzakaita zviito zvekubvumira zvipfeko zvakaganhurirwa mukurwisana namasangano ehurumende nokuda kwemarudzi akati ezvikumbiro, kazhinji kazhinji zvinoiswa pazvinorambwa uye zvinodikanwa zvakakomba. Somuenzaniso, Tort Apenties Act (Gav. code 76 810 et seq) inobvumira kutaura pamusoro pemasangano avose, kubatanidza nzvimbo dzinochekwa mvura, nokuda kwekuvadziko inoparirwa nemamiriro ezvinhu ane ngozi ezvinhu zvavose. Zvisinei, vachemite kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji vangabvisa kutaura kudzoka kubva kuzvisarudzo zvedare kana kuti kushanda kwehurumende apo hurumende inoshanda musimba rayo rehurumende. Apo hurumende inogadza sangano revoka ravose ne “nyika inovakwa ne“ , uye kukuvadzwa, mutauro unodzongodzorwa.

Kukwidziridzwa kweCongress Mupendhedment Yechigumi Nechina

Congress inogona kudzivirira kudzora hurumende pakushanda nesimba rayo rokumanikidzira Ivhu ra 144t Amendment (umh., kusimbisa dziviriro yakaenzana kana kuti muitiro wakafanira). Ikoku kwakafanira musimba kana chirevo chamashoko chikarevorwa kuti zviito zvehurumende zvakazvidzwa zvakaputsa maruramiro emitemo. [[FFF:] Mumuenzaniso, kana kuti chishandiso chavose chikarega basa kubatira imba yakaderera pasina muitiro wakafanira, kutaura pasi pe 42.C. 1983 zvingaunzwa mushandiro mukuru kana zvikaita basa muruvara resimba rehurumende muruvara rehurumende. [[5] Mune "FFFFE] [5]] [FExleander.[Foctum], urightoffat [FFoct1], U.56], U.U.2001, Chipomendero chapamhindi chikaromendero chapamutemo chehurumende chakareveri chenyika yose, chikashati chinodikanwa chapamutemo, chinoitwa muChishanyiri chenyika chenyika chenyika chenyika chenyika

Masumo Enyaradzo Inokarirwa: Dzidziso Yokupedzisira Youduku

Munyasi Ex Parete Young, 209 yerongedzero U.S. 123 (08), mutongi angaunza sututi mukurwisana navakuru vakuru vehurumende musimba ravo rokuraira kuputsa kunopfuurira kwomutemo wehurumende. Uku kusiiwa hakubvumiri kuvadziko yemari inobva mupfuma yehurumende asi kunobvumira kukarira kupinda muimba inotengwa kana kuti kubvisa magetsi murwizi pasina kushata, ichi chinoreva dare rehurumende rinogona kuraira mutungamiriri wehurumende kana kuti maneja wepfuma akadzorwa nehurumende kuti amise muitiro unoputsa mitemo yemhoteredzo kana kuti yevagari vemo. Somuenzaniso, kana kuti chishandiso chemagetsi chinoshanda chinenge chichipinza mvura murwizi chisina kushaidzwa, vagari vemo vangagona kubvumira mutungamiriri wehurumende kumisa kudzorwa. Chiva chinodzodzodzorwa hachidzorwi mumutemo chinokosha. Chinotototi chinopiwa chinoitwa chinoitwa pamutemo chinoitwa mumutemo chinoshatichi.

Kushata Kwemari Nedzimwe Nhete

Hurumende inodzivisawo kudzivirirwa kwehurumende inodzorwa muzvinoitika zvakati zvokubhuroka zvehurumende (11 U.S.C. 76), izvo zvinogona kutapura zvikwereti zvemari zvakacherwa nechikwereti chebhurokwa. Mukuwedzera, Federal Tort Anitiess Act (FTCA) zvinodzivisa kudzivirirwa kwehurumende yehurumende, kwete hurumende, asi nyika inodzorwa nehurumende inopa zviito zvakafanana. Mudzimwe nyika, kana chishandiso chikapinda mubasa re “propiterry” panzvimbo pe“ basa rehurumende, kudzivirira kungasashanda. Zvisinei, musiyano pakati pehurumende nepropitary yakashato yakashatiswa mumitemo mizhinji; dzimwe nyika zvino dzinoshandisa muedzo mumwe nokuda kwokudzivisa basa ripi kana kuti basa renyika.

Kubatsira Kunoita Vari Munzvimbo Yacho

Mapolantiff Nemaattorney

Nokuda kwezvisarudzo zvinokuvadzwa neyamuwanwa yavose, nhano yokutanga ndeyokusarudza kuti ndiani ari wechinhu kana kuti anoshandisa chishandiso chacho. Kana iri chiteshi chapachivande, kusatapurwa kwoudzori hachisi mhinganidzo, uye sututi yavagari vemo yeregeredzo, kudarika, kana kuti kunetsa kungapfuurira mudare rehurumende. Kana chishandiso chacho chiri chehurumende chaidzwa, chinoyera kutoda kudarika. Chikamu chaparera, kana kuti Kure Young[[FLT:] dzidziso. [FT:] kutsvanga. Atrorneysesss anofanirawo kurangarira kukumbira kushairira mudare remone, sokureva kwechipo kwechipo nokuda kwechibvumirano. Nokuda kwemitengodziro yedare reProuniontias.

Imwe rangariro yakakodzera ndeyokuti zviito zvemari yacho zvinoumba kutora zvinhu pasina muripo chete pasi peFindremendi. Kana mirau yenyika kana kuti mabasa anoshanda akanyima nenzira inobudirira muridzi wenzvimbo yose inoshanda mune zvemari, kutaura kwokushurikidza kusina kutsarukana kungawanika mukurwisana nehurumende kunyange pasina kurasha kwakananga, sezvo kutora kwaClauszime iri kuzviuraya. Ona Community yeEngland Lutheran Church v. Comfort of Los Angeles, U. 304 (1987). Muzvinoitika izvozvo, kudzivirira pamutemo hakushandi nemhaka yokuti Bumbiro remitemo rimene rinogovera mushonga.

Vagadziri Vezvomutemo Navatarisiri Vezvokushanda

Vadzori vemitemo navakuru vakuru vezvishandiso vanofanira kusanodzikamisa kudikanwa kwebasa rinorongeka nokuzvidavirira. Kudzivisa kuzvitonga kwakafara zvikuru kunogona kusiya vagari vemo pasina tarisiro yekuvadziko yakakomba, kuderedza chivimbo chavose. Nenzira inopesana, kuva nechokuita kusina kuganhurirwa kurumidzo kungagona kubvisa mari yehurumende ndokudzivisa kuiswa kwemitengo yavose mugadziriro inotambudza. Mitengo mizhinji yakadavidza yakagamuchira kupfurikidza nokugadza zvirongwa zvakaganhurirwa zvinobvumira kukwirira kukuvaradziro yakati, zvakadai se $50 000 000 pakutaura, asi kubvisa kurasika mirasikidzo. Vagadziri vemikoro vanofanirawo kurangarira kushandisa mibato yokunyunyuta yehurumende mukati mePUC kuti vapedze kupedza nharo. Miitiro yakadaro inogona kugovera rusununguko nokukurumidza, inoshatisa apo inochengeta kuchengeterwa kwezviteko zvapamutemo nokuda kwekutaura kwakawanda.

Mamaneja ezvokuzvidzora pasangano rehurumende anofanira kuziva kuti kuzvidzivirira panzvimbo yadzo hakudziviriri chikwereti chomunhu oga nokuda kwomufambiro usina kufanira kana kuti zviito kunze kwenzvimbo yebasa. Mu HAfer v. Melo, 502 U.S. 21 (1991), Dare rapamusoro rakati vakuru vakuru vehurumende vanoita muruvara rwomutemo vanganzi vapiwe musimba ravo romunhu oga nokuda kwechikamu cha1998. Nokudaro, maneja wemari anoshanda mushandisitiri anogona kutarisana nemhosva yomunhu oga pasinei zvapo nokudzivirirwa kwehurumende. Indiro inorovedza zvinodzorwa zvinokudzwa pazvinodikanwa zvemitemo nenjodzi zvehurumende ndiyo inokosha.

Vatongi Nenyanzvi Dzepamutemo

Kubatanidzwa pakati pechisakiso chapamutemo nemitemo yezvishandiso zvavose kunopfuurira kuva nokushanduka. Zvisarudzo zvemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi mumatare enhunhu zvakajekeswa apo chishandiso chavose chiri “simba rehurumende” nokuda kwezvinangwa zveAndeminth Amendment. Somuenzaniso, Frew] v. Hawkins[, 540 U.S. 431 [2004]), Dare rakasimbisa kuti mitemo inobvumira vakuru vehurumende pasi pe Muparts Young [ dzidziso inogona kudzorwa. Mumashoko anoshanda, mirayiro yakashandiswa kukumbira kuvandudza zvinhu kuti iwirirane maererano nemiraudzo yakapoteredza. Nyanzvi dzemitemo dzinoongorora kuti “idzodzodzo dze“ dzimwe nguva dzinodzo dzogarwa dzematunhu [FLT] dzinoita kuti dziva mamuka mabanza okugadzira mikana makuru.

Kuongorora Nyaya: Changamire Haslim Mumari Asiri Omuzvarirwo

Muitiro Wokutanga: Kushatiswa Kwemvura Inowanikwa Nevoruzhinji

Mu Flint v. Michigan [pakufamba], vagari veFlint, Michigan, vakuru vakuru vehurumende vakakurirwa nokuda kwenjodzi yemvura, vachiratidzira kuputswa kweFitest Water Act ne 144th Amend Amend Amendment. Department of Environmental Secure [sangano rehurumende] rakatumidzwa. Dare reSikisi rakavanza kuti dziviriro yadzoro yakadzivisa kutaura kwakati asi yakabvumira Chikamu cha19348 kuti chiparadzire vakuru nokuda kweyamuro inokarirwa muyamuro yemvura uye kukuvadziko yemari muhurumende pasi pe Kurevo] rutivi rwechiduku [FLT] runorega kuputsa kupfuurira. Chino chiono chinoratidzira kuti kudzoromedzerwa kwemishonga (g.g., kukuvadzwa kwemitezo yezvitsa mamiriro ezvinhu zvemari) inobvumira kubvumira migariro yezvitsa.

Mhaka 2: Moto Wemoto Unokonzerwa Nemidziyo Yokushandisa

MuCalifornia, pashure pemoto wengwavaira wakaipa wapangiswa nePacific Gas & Gezi (PG&E) midziyo, Plactis sued PG&E mudare rehurumende. PG& E isimba rinoshanda rakavanzika, naizvozvo kuzvidzivirira pacharo kwakanga kusiri nhau. Zvisinei, majekiseni akakwidzawo California Public Utilitity Commission nokuda kwokukundikana kumanikidzira mirairo yeko yakachengeteka. CPUPUC isangano rehurumende uye rinotaurwa kuva muteshiviso mukuru. Dare reCPUPUCPUC raicioc rakanga riri dziviriro pasi peForniart Act nemhaka yokuti kuisa mira mira miraudzo ibasa yehurumende yokutonga. Ikoku kusimbisa chinetso chehurumende nokuda kwokutarisira mufambiro unodzosa , kunyange apo vogatina vanhu vogarongedzero.

Miitiro Yenguva Yemberi Nokurangarira

Kukwira kwebatira pamwe yesimba inomutsidzirwa uye makambani anoshandiswa zviri kugadzira zvinhu zvitsva zvinganzi kana kuti hazvingarangarirwi sezvombo zvehurumende. Somuenzaniso, mushandi wenzanga anozvisarudzira kutengwa kwesimba pavagari vemo angava chiremera chakabatana nezvinodzivirira mamiriro esimba. Kuwedzera, computersecute rescreate requective division division iitiro hanya inokura. Kana mutengi wehurumende akakanganisa mashoko anokuvadza vatengi, vatengi vehurumende vangadzivisa kutaura zvimwe, asi vatengi vangaramba kuti basa rezvishandiso chechinhu chacho nderechipfuudzo uye kwete hurumende. Muteveri wehurumende unoita se [FOLD:]

Imwe kombamiro ndeyokuvamba kushandiswa kwe Ex Parte Young kudenha dzidziso yehurumende inoiswa mwero yezvishandiso kana kuti mitemo iyo inofungidzirwa kuti inoputsa Claus weChemmerce. Mu SAMINOLE REFY] FORNCE yeFlorida v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996), Dare rakaganhurira mano eCongress kudziviriro yehurumende pasi peCommond Claus, asi sudus mukurwisana navakuru vakuru veyamuko yeyamuko inoramba ichiripo. Florida madhivoni anodenha upambirwe rwesimba panzvimbo dzinobudisa simba rePreasterdagetains inogona nokudaro kutsvaka kudzora pasina kumhanya kwechidzo muteshina.

mhedziso

Hurumende inoumba zvikurukuru nzvimbo yezvisakiso zvemitemo yezviwiriranwa zvavose muUnited States. Kana kukwirira mhaka kuchipfuurira panzvimbo yesangano sesimba rehurumende, kuvapo kwechinorambwa kana kuti kumira pamitezo inotsvakwa. Varwi vemitengo navanotonga vanofanira kutungamirira nzvimbo yakaoma yemiraudzo yehurumende, Demindersion jurisprunce, uye muNhambo yeNhengo inosi inosimudzirwa seyapapo se Kuvapo kwechikamu chiduku, uye rudzi rwekusunungura rutsva runotsvakwa. Vata Claus. Varie . Varicatem vanofanira kuramba vakazara vachifanira kupiwa zvipfeko zvehurumende, nepo nyika inovara dziviriro inovaradzikiswa neyatiko. Sezvri zvinodzororo dzinova dzinooneka zvikuru.[FLT: 06]

Nokuda kwokuraviwazve panheyo dzapamutemo dzakati, nzvera Cornell Legal Information Institute yeshooustrial protection Institute , EPA] nhungamiro yezvisakiso zvapamutemo mumitemo yemhoteredzo[, uye [[FLT]Conferaligial Service Service Service on ExPremement